In general, the more risk factors experienced by children, the greater their likelihood of developing a disorder. In one study, researchers counted the number of environmental risks experienced by a large sample of adolescents (McLaughlin et al., 2012). Approximately 58% of adolescents experienced at least one risk factor such as parental divorce, parental substance use problems, or economic hardship. Regardless of race, ethnicity, or gender, the more risks that children experienced, the greater their likelihood of developing a mental health problem. Certain risk factors were especially predictive of disorders, such as parental criminal involvement, parental mental health problems, family violence, and child maltreatment.
It is noteworthy, however, that not all youths who experience these risk factors develop mental disorders. Protective factors refer to biological, psychological, and social–cultural influences that buffer the negative effects of risks on children’s development and promote adaptation. For example, parental divorce is a risk factor for behavioral and emotional disorders in young children, especially in families experiencing chronic stress and economic adversity (Hetherington, 2014). However, certain factors protect children of divorced parents from developing problems. These protective factors include the child’s temperament or innate emotional disposition (a biological factor), the quality of the parent–child relationship (a psychological factor), and the degree to which parents can rely on others for support (a social–cultural factor).
The salience of a risk factor depends on the child’s age, gender, level of development, and environmental context. For example, child sexual abuse is a risk factor for later psychosocial problems. However, the effects of sexual abuse depend on the gender of the child and the age at which the abuse occurs. Boys often show the greatest adverse effects of sexual victimization when they are abused in early childhood, whereas girls often show the poorest developmental outcomes when abuse occurs during early adolescence. Similarly, the ability of protective factors to buffer children from the harmful effects of risk depends on context. For example, many children who experience sexual abuse report considerable distress and impairment. However, children who are able to rely on a caring, nonoffending parent are often able to cope with this stressor more effectively than youths without the presence of a supportive caregiver (Cohen, Deblinger, & Mannarino, 2019).
Resilience
Protective factors are believed to promote resilience in at-risk youths. Resilience refers to the tendency of some children to develop competence despite the presence of multiple risk factors (Hayden & Mash, 2014). Consider Ramon and Rafael, two brothers growing up in the same low-income, high-crime neighborhood but experiencing different outcomes.
Case Study: Risk and Resilience
Divergent Developmental Paths
Ramon and Rafael are brothers growing up in the same impoverished neighborhood. Ramon, the older brother, begins showing disruptive behavior at a young age. He is disrespectful to his mother, defiant toward his teachers, and disinterested in school. By late elementary school, he has been suspended a number of times for fighting and being truant. In junior high school, Ramon associates with peers who introduce him to other antisocial behaviors, such as shoplifting and breaking into cars. By adolescence, Ramon rarely attends school and earns money selling drugs. At 15, Ramon is removed from his mother’s custody because of his antisocial behavior and truancy.
Rafael, the younger brother, also shows early problems with defiance and aggression. However, these problems do not persist beyond the early elementary school years. Although Rafael does not enjoy school, he befriends an art teacher who recognizes his talent for drawing. The teacher offers to tutor him in art and help him show his work. Rafael also takes art classes at a local community center to learn new mediums. Through these classes, he meets other adolescents interested in drawing and painting. Rafael’s grades in high school are generally low; however, he excels in art, music, and draftsmanship. He graduates with his class and studies interior design at community college.
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What accounts for Ramon’s struggles and Rafael’s resilience? Although there is no easy answer, a partial explanation might be the presence of protective factors at just the right time in Rafael’s development. Ramon’s path to antisocial behavior was probably facilitated by peers who introduced him to criminal activities. In contrast, Rafael’s peer group encouraged prosocial activities and the development of artistic competence. If Rafael’s teacher did not encourage the development of his talents until later in Rafael’s development, perhaps after he developed friendships with deviant peers, would he have followed the same developmental pathway as Ramon? Although we do not know for sure, we can speculate that these protective factors played an important role in his ability to achieve despite multiple risks (Masten & Cicchetti, 2016).
Most protective factors occur spontaneously: A teacher nurtures a special talent in an at-risk youth, a coach encourages a boy with depression to join a team, or a girl who has been abused is adopted by loving parents. Sometimes, however, protective factors are planned to prevent the emergence of disorders. For example, communities may offer free infant and toddler screenings to identify and help children with developmental disabilities at an early age. Similarly, schools may offer prevention programs for students at risk for learning disabilities. Even psychotherapy can be seen as a protective factor. Therapy helps children and adolescents alter developmental trajectories and promote long-term well-being (Masten & Kalstabakken, 2019).
Review
Risk factors interfere with the acquisition of children’s competence or their ability to adapt to their surroundings. Protective factors buffer children from risks.
Resilience occurs when children develop competence despite the presence of multiple risk factors.
2.2 Biological Influences on Development
How Can Genes Affect Development?
Genes and Chromosomes
Our body contains approximately 50 trillion cells, each containing our complete genetic code. The code is written using deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is shaped like a twisted ladder, or double helix. The “ropes” of the ladder are made up of sugars (deoxyribose) and phosphates. The “rungs” of the ladder consist of pairs of chemical bases held together by hydrogen bonds. Their structures allow them to combine only in certain ways, forming our unique genetic blueprint. DNA instructs each cell to build proteins, which form the structure and characteristics of the person (Frommlet, Bogdan, & Ramsey, 2016).
Segments of DNA are organized into genes. A single human cell contains approximately 20,000 genes. If the genes in each cell were connected together, end to end, they would be approximately 2 meters long. To save space in the cell, genes wrap around special proteins called histones. Histones are important because they can turn genes “on” and “off” by binding to them in certain ways (Rutter & Thapar, 2015).
Genes are organized into strands called
