researchers rigged the game: they programmed the mouse to occasionally move the cursor in the opposite direction, causing children to make mistakes. The researchers found that children with ADHD quit the task much sooner than their peers without ADHD. The researchers were allowed to deceive participants because the benefits of the study outweighed the temporary frustration experienced by the children and there was no way to conduct the study without deception.
Debriefing
Psychologists debrief participants at the completion of a study. Debriefing involves describing the nature, results, and conclusions of the research and answering questions about the study that the participants might have. Psychologists also inform participants if deception was used and clarify any misconceptions about the study. If psychologists discover that participants were harmed, they take reasonable steps to minimize that harm.
Review
When conducting research with children and families, psychologists must weigh the benefits of the study against its potential risks. Studies that cause pain, intense distress, or harm are not allowed, regardless of the scientific benefits they offer.
Participation in research is voluntary. Researchers obtain consent from parents and assent from children prior to data collection.
Psychologists avoid deceiving participants about the nature of their research. Deception is allowed under limited conditions, such as when a study has significant scientific value and other, nondeceptive techniques are not possible.
Key Terms
Affective bias:A form of wishful thinking in which our perceptions are influenced by our desires, motives, and emotionsAttrition:A threat to a study’s internal validity caused by the loss of participants over the course of the studyBeneficence:An ethical principle that involves balancing the benefits of one’s actions against the risks or costs involvedCase study:A research design that provides a detailed description of a person, group, or phenomenonConfirmatory bias:A form of selective thinking in which our perceptions are influenced by our beliefs, thoughts, and expectationsCorrelation coefficient (r):A statistical measure of the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variablesCorrelational study:A research design that examines the relationships between variablesCritical thinking:A tendency to be skeptical and seek plausible alternative explanations for phenomena rather than rely on others’ beliefs or opinionsCross-sectional study:A type of research design that examines the association between variables at the same point in timeDebriefing:A feature of a study in which researchers describe the nature, results, and conclusions of the study and answer questions about the study that participants might haveDeception:A feature of a study in which researchers deliberately provide false or incomplete information to participants in order to mislead them; can only be used under limited conditionsDiffusion tensor imaging (DTI):A neuroimaging method that measures the density and volume of white matter in the brain to estimate connectivity between brain regionsDouble-blind study:A research design in which neither participants nor researchers know which participants are receiving treatment and which are serving as controlsEffect size (ES):In meta-analysis, a number that reflects the weighted mean difference between treatment and control groups at the end of a treatment outcome studyEmpirical data:Information acquired through our senses, especially direct observation and careful measurementExperiment:A research design that allows researchers to conclude causal relationships between variables; essential features include random assignment, the systematic manipulation of one variable, and holding all extraneous factors constantExternal validity:The degree to which the results of a study generalize to other people and situationsFalsifiability:The capacity for an idea to be proven wrong; an essential feature of all scientific hypothesesFunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI):A neuroimaging method that measures brain activity by detecting blood oxygen concentrations during a mental taskHypothesis:A specific, falsifiable prediction about the relationship between two or more variablesIdiographic assessment:Data collection that evaluates a person’s unique abilities, experiences, and behaviorsInformed consent in research:An ethical requirement for all research studies; involves making sure that participants are aware of the purpose and nature of the study, agree to participate freely, and know that they can withdraw at any timeInternal validity:The degree to which we can conclude that the manipulation of the independent variable in a study (e.g., treatment) caused a corresponding change in the dependent variable (e.g., outcome)Longitudinal study:A type of research design that examines the association between variables at different points in time; specifies the temporal relationship between the variablesMagnetic resonance imaging (MRI):A neuroimaging method in which a strong magnetic field is used to create a static, detailed image of the bodyMediator:A variable that can help explain how two other variables are related; usually a continuous variableMeta-analysis:A statistical technique that is used to combine the results of multiple research studies into a single, overall numerical result called an effect sizeModerator:A variable that affects the direction or strength of two other variables; usually a categorical variableNomothetic assessment:Data collection that evaluates how groups of people typically think, feel, or actNonequivalent groups study:A type of quasi-experimental study in which researchers compare treatment and control groups, but participants are not randomly assigned to these groupsNonmaleficence:An ethical principle that means avoiding harm or inflicting the least discomfort possible to reach a beneficial outcomeOpen-label study:A research design in which participants and researchers know which participants are receiving treatment and which are serving as controlsOperational definition:A precise description of how a variable in a research study will be measuredParsimony:A scientific principle that dictates that simpler explanations should be selected over more complex explanationsPlacebo effect:People’s tendency to alter their behavior simply because they know they are receiving treatment; a threat to the internal validity of a studyPrecision:Care in the manner in which scientists collect data and draw conclusions from their observationsPretest-posttest study:A type of quasi-experimental study in which the same group of participants is assessed before and after treatmentPseudoscience:Statements, beliefs, and practices that people claim to be evidence based but are incompatible with scientific thinking; based largely on biases, opinions, and appeals to authorityQuasi-experimental study:A research design that involves the manipulation of an independent variable without the random assignment of participants to groupsRandom assignment:A research method in which each participant has an equal chance of being part of each experimental condition; an essential feature of an experimentRandom selection:A manner of recruiting participants for a research study in which each person in a given population has an equal chance of being includedRandomized controlled trial:A special type of experiment used to test the efficacy of treatment; participants are randomly assigned to treatment or control groupsReplication crisis:Refers to the finding that the results of many scientific studies are difficult or impossible to reproduceReproducibility:Scientific principle that the results of research studies must be replicated before they are acceptedScience:A set of principles and procedures that are used to guard against biased thinking; relies on the careful, systematic collection of data to understand ourselves and the worldScientific method:Procedures used to gather, evaluate, and organize information about the natural worldSelection bias:A systematic difference between participants in the treatment and control groups that can emerge when participants are not randomly assigned; a problem often seen in nonequivalent group studiesSingle subject study:A type of quasi-experimental study in which one participant’s
