systems. In doing so, Shinde expands on the conceptual model in this chapter (Fig. 1.2) to provide a comprehensive explanation of the complexities of managing the natural and human-built environment at religious tourism destinations.
In Chapter 4, Joshua Nash focuses on how deeper and more philosophical experiences with sacred places, such as Vrindavan, India, can lead to the creation of human sanctuaries. Although present-day Vrindavan, which in popular mythological image is considered a celestial forest and divine playground of Krishna, is a city full of environmental problems, it still is the focus of spiritual teachings that build on the union of religion and nature conservation. In an almost biographical style, Nash expounds on the Vaishnava teachings and their relevance for conserving the natural environment as he learned them from his study with local Vrindavan ecologist Shri Sevak Sharan, who calls for practical action and contemplative practice (sadhana, chintan) using what he calls the Vrindavan Ecological Concept (VEC). Nash argues that this concept is powerful enough to inspire changes in thought processes and behavioural action that can create human sanctuaries everywhere in the world.
In Chapter 5, Sanjay Nepal, Yang Mu, and Po-Hsin Lai examine how local residents make sense of the sacred landscape of the Sagarmatha (Mt Everest) National Park (SNP) in Nepal’s Khumbu Region. From their fieldwork they report that Sherpas’ emotional and spiritual bonds with the landscape are reinforced through routinized contact with the sacred cultural features and consistent compliance with the rules of conduct. The authors argue that Sherpa residents’ objective recognition of the sacred landscape is influenced by geographical proximity to sacred sites, age of residents, and their religious backgrounds. Subjective interpretations of sacred landscape are also shaped by a strong awareness of behavioural restrictions, family influence and personal experiences. These strong bonds, however, are under threat as the religious influence of the landscape is diminishing with the shift of people’s economic dependency from the land to a consumer culture facilitated by tourism.
In Chapter 6, Anouk Lafortune-Bernard, Rajendra Suwal, Kai Weise, and Robin Coningham discuss the challenges for site managers at the Limbini World Heritage Site in Nepal, the birthplace of the Buddha. Since 1978, the Lumbini Master Plan has focused on ecological conservation and preserving the sanctity of the site in the face of increasing urbanization and tourism development in the area. The authors reflect on some of the difficulties in implementing the original plan, showing that the lack of integration of the Lumbini Master Plan with other local and regional plans has made it difficult to achieve the broader sustainable goals for the region.
In Chapter 7, Nour Farra-Haddad looks at interfaith pilgrimages in Lebanon where Christian and Muslims pilgrims worship at each other’s sacred sites. More specifically, the author looks at how the natural elements of these sacred sites, including trees, water, and stones, are utilized by pilgrims. In doing so, Farra-Haddad argues that the use of these natural elements in shared religious rituals acts as a catalyst for interfaith cooperation and experiences between different faith traditions in Lebanon.
The importance of understanding the sociopolitical contexts in which a sacred site is constructed is the focus of Josep-Maria Garcia-Fuentes in Chapter 8. Garcia-Fuentes discusses the building of the Sagrada Familia, a well-known Catholic expiatory temple in Barcelona. The author argues that its design and construction was symbolic of competing religious and political forces to use the mountain and shrine of Montserrat as a national symbol. This chapter situates the Sagrada Familia by Gaudí and its entangled relations with Montserrat within the reconceptualization of nature by the Catholic Church in a contemporary European context.
In Chapter 9, Daniel Olsen examines how the rigours of religious tourism and pilgrimage affect human health through a review of the literature related to the development and spread of infectious diseases by participants at pilgrimage/religious tourism mass gatherings. While some of this occurs because of the lack of hygienic facilities, the close proximity of religious travellers in sometimes small, confined spaces also exacerbates the rates of contraction and the spread of these diseases. The author also looks at the different types of infectious and non-infectious disease and other health risks that occur at religious mass gatherings with a particular emphasis on the Hajj. The author concludes with a discussion of how government, health, and religious officials are trying to mitigate the spread of diseases that originate from, and other health-related issues that occur at, these religious mass gatherings, highlighting the need for further research in this area.
Waste management, the most visible environmental problem for Hajj managers, is the focus on Jahanzeeb Qurashi’s chapter (Chapter 10). Even though the Quran is explicit in highlighting the importance of environmental stewardship and conservation, the areas in Saudi Arabia that host the Hajj – one of the most important tenets of Islamic religious practice – experience extensive environmental damage during the pilgrimage. This is in part due to the lack of controlled waste disposal, recovery, and recycling, as well as deficiencies in the country’s national waste management strategy. This chapter critically focuses on a number of key areas related to the Hajj and environmental damage, including how pilgrims and the hospitality and tourism industry affect the natural environment and how the government of Saudia Arabia is attempting to improve the environmental sustainability of the Hajj.
In Chapter 11, Michael Di Giovine and Elisa Ascione focus on the rebuilding of religious tourism sites after major natural disasters, as shown in the case of St Benedict in Norcia, Italy. The authors explore how different stakeholders have framed the role of tourism in the area and how touristic practices re-signify the value of places and their associated moral ideals after environmental disasters. While the clergy in the area have used recent earthquakes as a metaphor for redemption and renewal, tourists and other stakeholders have also affirmed their presence and experiences in the region as transformative for themselves and for the environment. The authors also emphasize how the necessary tearing down of important churches affects the region’s sense of place and social identity, and how efforts to rebuild these churches as well as the surrounding community have helped instil a sense of sacredness beyond the old core to the destination as a whole. In addition, the authors illustrate the dialectical effects of a double environmental transformation on sacred sites: how a natural disaster – unplanned and uncontrollable by social actors – affects the tangible and intangible fabric of a pilgrimage site and how those subsequent social interventions likewise influence religious tourism and its stakeholders as well as the wider environment.
In the final chapter, Daniel Olsen and Kiran Shinde summarize the major arguments as discussed in the preceding chapters and expand upon their proposed conceptual framework for environmental analysis in a pilgrimage place from Chapter 1. The authors also focus on the limitations of the book and suggest future avenues of research in the area of religion, tourism, and the environment.
Note
1 The Kumbha Mela celebrates the victory of the gods over the demons in winning control over the pitcher or kumbha containing the nectar of immortality. According to myth, four drops of the nectar fell to earth during the battle, each landing in one of four religious centres: Allahabad, Haridwar, Ujjain, and Nasik. The Kumbha Mela pilgrimage, which takes place every 3 years in January-February, rotates between these four religious centres. Participating in the Kumbha Mela is regarded as a meritorious act for Hindus, and sadhus or wandering ascetics, religious gurus,
