are made from this precursor)
Mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers
Isotropic pitch-based carbon fibers
Rayon-based carbon fibers (this also falls under the category of pitch-based (10% are made from this precursor)
Gas-phase-grown carbon fibers
Classification of carbon fibers based on heat treatment temperature:
Type-I, High-heat-treatment carbon fibers (HTT) Carbon fibers obtained after heat treatment at temperature above 2000 °C. These fibers are associated with high-modulus type fiber.
Type-II, Intermediate-heat-treatment carbon fibers (IHT) Carbon fibers obtained after heat treatment at temperature around 1500 °C. These fibers are associated with high- strength type fiber.
Type-III, Carbon fibers obtained with low-heat-treatment. Carbon fibers obtained with heat treatment at temperature around 1000 °C show low modulus and low strength.
1.1.3 Structures of Carbon Fibers
Some carbon fibers synthesized by the author [2, 3] and his research group from camphor under different but specific conditions are shown in Figure 1.4. These are grown by chemical vapor deposition technique. It is observed that though precursor was the same, i.e., camphor, by altering the nature and form of catalyst, carbon fibers of different morphologies are obtained. For this growth, nickel in different forms was used as a catalyst. Nickel plate, cleaned by acid followed by acetone, gave carbon fiber as shown in Figure 1.4a. When the top surface of nickel was oxidized and then cleaned, it gave carbon fiber as shown in Figure 1.4b. It grew from one point on the catalyst surface in a cauliflower-like shape. In another experiment, camphor was pyrolyzed without using any catalyst. Under this condition, plate type (cactus type) carbon fiber was obtained (Figure 1.4c). These fibers also contained some small beads attached to the fiber. In one experiment nickel powder of size 20 nm spread over nickel plate was used. Under this condition, branched carbon fiber as shown in Figure 1.4d was obtained, with Ni catalyst sitting at the center. Vapor-grown carbon fibers (VGCFs) (Figure 1.4e) were obtained by pyrolysis on the Ni coated quartz substrate. All these experiments were carried out under argon atmosphere at temperature 750 °C.
Figure 1.4 SEM images of carbon fibers (CF) synthesized from camphor as precursors by pyrolyzing them at 700 °C in presence of argon under varying conditions: (a) Long tubelike CF over nickel plate, (b) cauliflower-like CF over oxidized nickel plate, (c) CF grown without using any catalyst, (d) branched carbon fibers obtained at temperature 750 °C, with Ni sitting at the center, and (e) VGCFs obtained by pyrolysis on the Ni coated quartz substrate (Source: Debabrata Pradhan, 2003) [4].
1.1.4 Synthesis of Carbon Fibers
The process of synthesis of carbon fibers is patented and each company has its own trade secret. It is difficult to provide a detailed and very accurate process. It is therefore only possible to discuss an overall process without providing the intricacies of the actual process. Hence, the synthesis process of the most popular carbon fibers prepared from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) precursor is discussed here.
1.1.4.1 Carbon Fibers from PAN
Before carbon fibers are made from PAN, some pretreatments are made, like mixing Acrylonitrile powder with a suitable plastic (e.g., methyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate) and a catalyst to form a polyacrylonitrile plastic. This plastic is then spun to form the internal atomic structure of the fiber. These fibers are stabilized by heating them in air at about 200–300 °C for about 30–120 minutes. During this process some oxidation of carbon takes place, which helps to rearrange their atomic bonding pattern. These fibers are then carbonized at temperature 1000–3000 °C for several minutes in gas like argon (but in absence of any oxygen). By this process most of the non-carbon atoms and a few carbon atoms as well are lost in the form of gas like CO2, CO, N2 NH3, water vapor H2, etc. This process helps to form strongly bonded carbon atoms that are aligned parallel to the long axis of the fiber. Due to losing different types of material during the carbonizing process, the surface of the fiber is very rough. Hence, to obtain better bonding properties, surfaces are oxidized in a controlled manner by techniques like exposing them in oxygen environments or by performing some chemical treatments like dipping them into some oxidizing solutions like nitric acid. In order to protect the fibers from environmental oxidation, they are coated with epoxy, polyester, nylon, urethane, and others.
1.1.5 Properties of Carbon Fibers
It is difficult to give the properties of carbon fibers by quantity because that depends on how the fiber was made and what treatments were done to the fiber. Here we give properties qualitatively only. Specific strength of carbon fiber (which is the ratio of strength to weight) is very high. Strength of material is the ratio of the force per unit area applied to fiber at which it breaks to its density. Carbon fiber is very rigid, i.e., its Young’s modulus is high. In other words, it needs high force to deflect it. The fiber is chemically stable and resistant to corrosion. Carbon fiber is electrically conductive and is resistant to fatigue, especially its composites. Carbon fiber has good tensile strength, which means it can stand maximum stress while it is stretched or pulled. Carbon fibers are normally fire resistant/nonflammable in the absence of oxygen. They are a good thermal conductor. Carbon fibers have a unique property of low coefficient of thermal expansion. They are nonpoisonous, biologically inert and X-ray permeable. These properties are especially good for any medical applications.
Some general properties of PAN-based fiber are given below, but these values may be different if PAN-based fibers are prepared under some specific condition. Hence, these data can be taken as approximate values.
Density: 1750–1870 kg/m3
Tensile strength: 0.9–6.37 kN/mm2
Young’s modulus: 40–588 kN/mm2
Elongation: 0.7%–2.2%
Filament diameter: 4.4–7.2 μm
Tensile strength of carbon fiber: 4127 MPa
Carbon fiber reinforced epoxy (thermal conductivity): 24 W/(m.K)
1.2 Properties of Carbon Nanofiber and How It Differs from Carbon Nanotube
Intrinsically,
