should be collected from the teat into a sterile container.Figure 25.5 Thick inflammatory fluid expressed from the udder of a mare with mastitis.Figure 25.6 Cytologic evaluation of mammary fluid from a mare with mastitis. Note the large number of degenerated white blood cells (arrow).
A culture of mammary secretion should be performed if mastitis is suspected. Equine mastitis is usually bacterial in origin and the most common organisms are Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus and Staphylococcus species. Gram‐negative organisms such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella species are less commonly isolated.
An ultrasound examination may be performed following manual assessment of the mammary gland to evaluate a region for a potential mammary tumor or abscess. Application of isopropyl alcohol to the skin may be needed to provide adequate probe contact.
Biopsy of the mammary gland may be indicated for histologic verification of neoplasia. However, tumors of the equine mammary gland are rare and consequently biopsies of the udder are rarely performed.
At weaning the foal should be removed from the mare and the mare should not be milked. The active pressure within the aveoli will cause milk production to cease. Some mares may experience slight pain for 1–2 days upon removal of the foal.
Further Reading
1 Gee EK, McCue PM. 2011. Mastitis. In: McKinnon AO, Squires EL, Vaala WE, Varner DD (eds). Equine Reproduction, 2nd edn. Ames, IA: Wiley Blackwell, pp. 2738–41.
2 McCue PM, Sitters S. 2011. Lactation. In: McKinnon AO, Squires EL, Vaala WE, Varner DD (eds). Equine Reproduction, 2nd edn. Ames, IA: Wiley Blackwell, pp. 2277–90.
3 Waldridge BM, Ward TA. 1999. Ultrasound examination of the equine mammary gland. Eq Pract 21: 10–13.
26 Antisperm Antibody Testing
Patrick M. McCue
Equine Reproduction Laboratory, Colorado State University, USA
Introduction
Antisperm antibodies (ASAs) have been suggested to be a cause of infertility in both males and females of a number of species, including mice, rabbits, cattle, horses, humans, and other species. IgG, IgA, and IgM antibodies directed against sperm antigens have been detected in various fluids and tissues.
Published studies have reported that 13–77% of women with unexplained infertility have ASAs detected in their serum. Mechanical or chemical disruption of the mucosal layer of the female genital tract has been proposed as the mechanism by which exposure to the “foreign” sperm antigen occurs. An immune response subsequently develops following exposure to sperm antigens.
Potential mechanisms by which ASAs may adversely affect fertility in the female of various species include:
Prevention of sperm from undergoing capacitation.
Prevention of sperm binding to the oocyte.
Prevention of sperm from undergoing the acrosome reaction.
Prevention of sperm from penetration of the zona pellucida.
Interference with early embryonic development.
Interference with maintenance of the pregnancy.
Technique
Assays for ASAs in various species include immunobead assays, mixed antiglobulin reaction tests, enzyme‐linked immunosorbant assays, immunofluorescence tests, tube‐slide agglutination tests, tray agglutination tests, flow cytometry, and radiolabeled agglutination tests. Pitfalls and false‐positive results have apparently been associated with all of the diagnostic tests for ASAs.
There are currently no diagnostic laboratories offering tests to determine the presence or absence of ASAs in equine serum or seminal plasma.
Additional Comments
In the horse, two case reports have associated the presence of ASAs in subfertile stallions that experienced testicular trauma. One study evaluated the prevalence of ASAs in a population of mares and reported that 10.2% of horses had ASAs in their serum. A pair of studies evaluated the immune response of mares actively immunized against stallion sperm cells. The authors concluded that IgG antibodies, and to a lesser extent IgA antibodies, against sperm cells increased following immunization, but there was no apparent decrease in fertility. A recent study reported that the percentage of IgG antibody bound spermatozoa were higher in non‐satisfactory breeder stallions than in satisfactory breeder stallions.
Clearly, additional studies are needed to determine the incidence of ASAs in mares with a history of subfertility or infertility. Furthermore, the relationship (if any) between the presence of ASAs and failure to conceive or failure to remain pregnant needs further investigation.
Further Reading
1 Day MJ. 1996. Detection of equine antisperm antibodies by indirect immunofluorescence and the tube‐slide agglutination test. Eq Vet J 28: 494–6.
2 Ferrer MS, George A, Miller LMJ, et al. 2014. Diagnosis of sperm‐bound anti‐sperm antibodies by flow cytometry and their association with semen quality. J Eq Vet Sci 34: 57.
3 Lee C, Nie GJ, Joo HS, Momont H. 1993. An enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of antisperm antibodies in horse serum. Theriogenology 40: 1117–26.
4 Mazumdar S, Levine AS. 1998. Antisperm antibodies: etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment. Fertil Steril 70: 799–810.
5 Nie GJ, Lee C, Momont HW, Joo HS. 1993. Equine antisperm antibodies (EASA): preliminary study of the clinical response following breeding in immunized mares. Theriogenology 40: 1107–16.
6 Papa FO, Alvarenga MA, Lopes MD, Campos Filho EP. 1990. Infertility of autoimmune origin in a stallion. Eq Vet J 22: 145–6.
7 Risvanli A, Cetin H, Apaydin AM, Kkorkmaz O, Atli MO, Timurkan H. 2005. Prevalence of anti‐sperm antibodies in mares in the south‐eastern Anatolian of Turkey. Bull Vet Inst Pulawy 49: 45–8.
8 Zhang J, Ricketts SW, Tanner SJ. 1990. Antisperm antibodies in the semen of a stallion following testicular trauma. Eq Vet J 22: 138‐41.
27 Starch Granule Test for the Evaluation of Oviductal Patency
Sofie Sitters1 and John J. Dascanio2
1 Amsterdam, The Netherlands
2 School of Veterinary Medicine, Texas Tech University, USA
Introduction
