rather than by a grinding action (Roman, 1967). The unit emphasizes nipping particles between the hammer and the grate bars. The hammer mill is a versatile unit and has a capacity up to 2,500 tons/hour for industrial units.
3.4.4 Impactor
An impactor is a size reduction device that strikes (impacts) the coal which is then thrown against a hard surface or against other coal particles. The coal is typically contained within a cage, with openings on the bottom, end, or side of the desired size to allow pulverized material to escape.
The rotor-type impact mill uses rotors to effect size reduction. In the mill, the coal drops into the path of the rotor, where it is shattered, driven against the impact surface, and further reduced in size. The material rebounds into the path of the rotor and the cycle repeats itself until the product is discharged from the base.
There are two types of impact crushers: (i) horizontal shaft impactor and (ii) the vertical shaft impactor.
3.4.5 Tumbler
The tumbler (tumbling mill) is a grinding and pulverizing machine consisting of a shell or drum rotating on a horizontal axis. The material coal is fed into one end of the tumbler where it comes into contact with grinding material, such as iron balls. As the tumbler rotates, the material and grinding balls tumble against each other, the material being broken chiefly by attrition.
Tumblers are cylindrical size reduction devices and are essentially lined drums supported by hollow trunnions at each end. The units are manufactured with overflow, grate, or peripheral, discharge arrangements.
In summary, proper coal sizing is one of the key measures to ensure efficient combustion (Table 3.5). Proper coal sizing, with specific relevance to the type of firing system, helps towards even burning, reduced ash losses and better combustion efficiency. As described above, coal is reduced in size by crushing and pulverizing. Pre-crushed coal can be economical for smaller units, especially those which are stoker fired. In a coal handling system, crushing is limited to a top size of 6 or 4 mm. The devices most commonly used for crushing are the rotary breaker, the roll crusher, and the hammer mill.
Table 3.5 Approximate size dimensions of coal for combustion in various coal-fired systems.
| System | Size, inches (mm) |
| Hand Firing (a) Natural draft (b) Forced draft | 1-3 (25-75) 1-1.6 (25-40) |
| Stoker Firing (a) Chain grate i) Natural draft ii) Forced draft (b) Spreader Stoker | 1-1.6 (25-40) 0.6-1.0 (15-25) 0.6-1.0 (15-25) |
| Pulverized Fuel Fired | 75% below 75 microns* |
| Fluidized bed boiler | <0.4 (<10 mm) |
*1 Micron = 1/1000 mm
It is necessary to screen the coal before crushing, so that only oversized coal is fed to the crusher. This helps to reduce power consumption in the crusher. Recommended practices in coal crushing are (i) incorporation of a screen to separate fines and small particles to avoid extra fine generation in crushing, and (ii) incorporation of a magnetic separator to separate iron pieces in coal, which may damage the crusher.
3.5 Coal Cleaning
Run-of-mine coal generally has mineral matter on the order of 5 to 40% w/w and sulfur on the order of content of 0.2 to 0.8% w/w% depending on the geologic conditions and mining technique used. Coal cleaning, therefore, is often required to remove excessive impurities for efficient and environmentally safe utilization of coal. One important purpose of coal preparation is to increase the heating value of the coal by mechanical removal of impurities. This is often required in order to find a market for the product. Run-of-mine coal from a modern mine may incorporate as much as 60% reject materials. In the United States, the coal cleaning is most common at eastern and midwestern mines.
Current commercial coal cleaning methods are invariably based on physical separation; chemical and biological methods tend to be too expensive. Typically, density separation is used to clean coarse coal while surface property-based methods are usually preferred for fine coal cleaning (Davis, 1993; Dodson et al., 1994). In the density-based processes, coal particles are added to a liquid medium and then subjected to gravity or centrifugal forces to separate the organic-rich (float) phase from the mineral-rich (sink) phase.
Density-based separation is commercially accomplished by the use of jigs, mineral spirals, concentrating tables, hydrocyclones, and heavy media separators. The performance of density-based cleaning circuits is estimated by using laboratory float-sink tests. In the surface property-based processes, ground coal is mixed with water and a small amount of collector reagent is added to increase the hydrophobicity of coal surfaces. Subsequently, air bubbles are introduced in the presence of a frothing agent to carry the coal particles to the top of the slurry, separating them from the hydrophilic mineral particles. Commercial surface property-based cleaning is accomplished through froth or column flotation.
Other physical coal cleaning methods include selective agglomeration, heavy and medium cycloning, and dry separation with electrical and magnetic methods (Couch, 1991, 1995). Selective agglomeration and advanced cycloning have the high probability of commercialization, particularly for reducing the sulfur content of coal (Couch 1995). In selective agglomeration, the coal is mixed with oil. The oil wets the surface of coal particles and thus causes them to stick together to form agglomerates. The agglomerated coal particles are then separated from the mineral particles that stay in suspension because they do not attract oil to their surfaces.
3.5.1 Effect of Composition and Rank
When coals are combusted or pyrolyzed, there is the near complete elimination of hydrogen and oxygen – the carbon residue that remains, however, still contains small quantities of nitrogen and sulfur. Typical values for carbon, hydrogen, volatile matter (i.e., low molecular weight products of the pyrolysis), and residual (fixed, non-volatile) carbon of the various classes of coal (Table 3.2) provide the basis of a system for describing coal rank (Speight, 2013).
In the context of coal cleaning, oxygen is often considered unimportant because it is nonpolluting! But some consideration should be given to the effect of oxygen on the fate of its nitrogen and sulfur compatriots as well as its effect when water (a product of the combustion of hydrocarbons which also contain oxygen) condenses with other by-products on the cooler parts of combustion systems; corrosive, aqueous acids can be the result.
Sulfur is a special case because it is considered to be, and actually is, a more a serious pollutant than oxygen. Sulfur occurs in various forms and is distributed throughout the organic matrix and in the minerals. As organic sulfur, it occurs in the organic structure of the coal and as pyritic sulfur, it occurs as discrete particles of pyrite (Fe). In addition, sulfates are occasionally
