are commonly selected with reference to possible shelter from their ravages. In spite of this they do not always escape. In the October previous to my last visit a boat-house and boat were swept away; and one of the most recent among the tracks that I saw reached within twenty yards of some farm-buildings.
What has become of the millions of trees that are thus falling, and have fallen, into the Norwegian fjords during the whole of the present geological era? In considering this question we must remember that the mountain slopes forming the banks of these fjords continue downwards under the waters of the fjords which reach to depths that in some parts are to be counted in thousands of feet.
It is evident that the loose stony and earthy matter that accompanies the trees will speedily sink to the bottom and rest at the foot of the slope somewhat like an ordinary sub-aerial talus, but not so the trees. The impetus of their fall must launch them afloat and impel them towards the middle of the estuary, where they will be spread about and continue floating, until by saturation they become dense enough to sink. They will thus be pretty evenly distributed over the bottom. At the middle part of the estuary they will form an almost purely vegetable deposit, mingled only with the very small portion of mineral matter that is held in suspension in the apparently clear water. This mineral matter must be distributed among the vegetable matter in the form of impalpable particles having a chemical composition similar to that of the rocks around. Near the shores a compound deposit must be formed consisting of trees and fragments of leaves, twigs, and other vegetable matter mixed with larger proportions of the mineral débris.
If we look a little further at what is taking place in the fjords of Norway we shall see how this vegetable deposit will ultimately become succeeded by an overlying mineral deposit which must ultimately constitute a stratified rock.
All these fjords branch up into inland valleys down which pours a brawling torrent or a river of some magnitude. These are more or less turbid with glacier mud or other detritus, and great deposits of this material have already accumulated in such quantity as to constitute characteristic modern geological formations bearing the specific Norsk name of ören, as Laerdalsören, Sundalsören, etc., describing the small delta plains at the mouth of a river where it enters the termination of the fjord, and which, from their exceptional fertility, constitute small agricultural settlements bearing these names, which signify the river sands of Laerdal, Sundal, etc. These deposits stretch out into the fjord, forming extensive shallows that are steadily growing and advancing further and further into the fjord. One of the most remarkable examples of such deposits is that brought by the Storelv (or Justedals Elv), which flows down the Justedal, receiving the outpour from its glaciers, and terminates at Marifjören. When bathing here I found an extensive sub-aqueous plain stretching fairly across that branch of the Lyster fjord into which the Storelv flows. The waters of the fjord are whitened to a distance of two or three miles beyond the mouth of the river. These deposits must, if the present conditions last long enough, finally extend to the body, and even to the mouth, of the fjords, and thus cover the whole of the bottom vegetable bed with a stratified rock in which will be entombed, and well preserved, isolated specimens of the trees and other vegetable forms corresponding to those accumulated in a thick bed below, but which have been lying so long in the clear waters that they have become soddened into homogeneous vegetable pulp or mud, only requiring the pressure of solid superstratum to convert them into coal.
The specimens of trees in the upper rock, I need scarcely add, would be derived from the same drifting as that which produced the lower pulp; but these coming into the water at the period of its turbidity and of the rapid deposition of mineral matter, would be sealed up one by one as the mineral particles surrounding it subsided. Fossils of estuarine animals would, of course, accompany these, or of fresh-water animals where, instead of a fjord, the scene of these proceedings is an inland lake. In reference to this I may state that at the inner extremities of the larger Norwegian fjords the salinity of the water is so slight that it is imperceptible to taste. I have freely quenched my thirst with the water of the Sörfjord, the great inner branch of the Hardanger, where pallid specimens of bladder wrack were growing on its banks.
In the foregoing matter-of-fact picture of what is proceeding on a small scale in the Aachensee, and on a larger in Norway, we have, I think, a natural history of the formation, not only of coal seams, but also of the Coal Measures around and above them.
The theory which attributed our coal seams to such vegetable accumulations as the rafts of the Mississippi is now generally abandoned. It fails to account for the state of preservation and the position of many of the vegetable remains associated with coal.
There is another serious objection to this theory that I have not seen expressed. It is this: rivers bringing down to their mouths such vegetable deltas as are supposed, would also bring considerable quantities of earthy matter in suspension, and this would be deposited with the trees. Instead of the 2 or 3 per cent of incombustible ash commonly found in coal, we should thus have a quantity more nearly like that found in bituminous shales which may thus be formed, viz., from 20 to 80 per cent.
The alternative hypothesis now more commonly accepted—that the vegetation of our coal-fields actually grew where we find it—is also refuted by the composition of coal-ash. If the coal consisted simply of the vegetable matter of buried forests its composition should correspond to that of the ashes of plants; and the refuse from our furnaces and fireplaces would be a most valuable manure. This we know is not the case. Ordinary coal-ash, as Bischof has shown, nearly corresponds to that of the rocks with which it is associated; and he says that “the conversion of vegetable substances into coal has been effected by the agency of water;” and also that coal has been formed, not from dwarfish mosses, sedges, and other plants which now contribute to the growth of our peat-bogs, but from the stems and trunks of the forest trees of the Carboniferous Period, such as Sigillariæ, Lepdodendra, and Coniferæ.14 All we know of these plants teaches us that they could not grow in a merely vegetable soil containing but 2 or 3 per cent of mineral matter. Such must have been their soil for hundreds of generations in order to give a depth sufficient for the formation of the South Staffordshire ten-yard seam.
All these and other difficulties that have stood so long in the way of a satisfactory explanation of the origin of coal appear to me to be removed if we suppose that during the Carboniferous Period Britain and other coal-bearing countries had a configuration similar to that which now exists in Norway, viz., inland valleys terminating in marine estuaries, together with inland lake basins. If to this we superadd the warm and humid climate usually attributed to the Carboniferous Period, on the testimony of its vegetable fossils, all the conditions requisite for producing the characteristic deposits of the Coal Measures are fulfilled.
We have first the under-clay due to the beginning of this state of things, during which the hill slopes were slowly acquiring the first germs of subsequent forest life, and were nursing them in their scanty youth. This deposit would be a mineral mud with a few fossils and that fragmentary or fine deposit of vegetable matter that darkens the carboniferous shales and strips the sandstones. Such a bed of dark consolidated mud, or fine clay, is found under every seam of coal, and constitutes the “floor” of the coal pit. The characteristic striped rocks—the “linstey” or “linsey” of the Welsh colliers—is just such as I found in the course of formation in the Aachensee near the shore, as described above.
The prevalence of estuarine and lacustrine fossils in the Coal Measures is also in accordance with this: the constitution of coal-ash is perfectly so. Its extreme softness and fineness of structure; its chemical resemblance to the rocks around, and above, and below; and oblong basin form common to our coal seams; the apparent contradiction of such total destruction of vegetable structure common to the true coal seams, while immediately above and below them are delicate structures well preserved, is explained by the more rapid deposition of the latter, and the slow soddening of the former as above described.
I do not, however, offer this as an explanation of the formation of every kind of coal. On the contrary, I am satisfied that
