skills of majority language children.
In studies on German writing skills (which mainly relate to spelling skills), elementary school students in partial IM programs and in less-intensive bilingual programs have been found to perform equally well as their peers in mainstream schools at the end of grade 4 (e.g., Böttger & Müller, 2020; Gebauer et al., 2012; Möller et al., 2018; Steinlen, 2018b; Steinlen & Piske, 2013, 2018a, 2020; Zaunbauer et al., 2005, 2013, Zaunbauer & Möller, 2006, 2007, 2010; to avoid possible selection effects many of these studies used basic cognitive abilities and socio-economic status as covariates). Similarly, in Canadian French IM programs, L1 English students’ English writing skills did not differ from their peers in regular programs (e.g., Genesee, 1987, 2004; Rubin et al., 1991; Turnbull et al., 2001). However, available evidence indicates that deficits initially appear in early full IM (Barik & Swain, 1976, but see Yadollahi, Steinlen & Piske, 2020) although these seem to balance out in one or two years after writing lessons in the L1 English have been introduced (Genesee, 2007; Rubin et al., 1991). In general, L1 literacy skills (be it reading or writing) of majority language children appear to develop age-appropriately in IM programs as well as in bilingual programs with lesser FL intensity.
2.3.11 FL skills in regular vs. bilingual programs
There is an abundance of studies which compare FL reading and writing skills in IM and mainstream foreign language programs. The results are unambiguous: IM students (independent of the type of IM program, i.e., early or late, full or partial) outperform comparable non-IM peers in regular programs in any kind of FL language test (e.g., Genesee, 2004; Pérez-Cañado, 2012; Wesche, 2002).
Regarding the development of FL reading skills by majority language children in IM programs in Germany, Zaunbauer et al. (2012) reported that at the end of grade 4, immersion students obtained higher scores in tests on English reading fluency and comprehension than their peers in mainstream programs. Steinlen & Piske (2018a), who examined 136 fourth graders in a regular and a partial IM program, reported similar results. Not surprisingly, the two groups differed with respect to their English reading and writing skills, with the partial IM students being at level A2/B1 for English reading, and the students in the regular program at level A1. Some students in Zaunbauer et al. (2012) even scored within the range of native-speaker norms (see also Nold et al., 2008 for ninth graders in bilingual programs in Germany). Such native-like reading skills may emerge during the fourth year of immersion teaching but, as other authors noted, not earlier than that (e.g., Cashion & Eagan, 1990; Geva & Clifton 1994; Malicky, Fagan & Norman, 1988; Möller et al., 2017; see also Genesee & Jared, 2008 for more details). In general, the results for IM programs in Germany agree well with findings reported for French IM programs in Canada (e.g., Genesee, 1978; Genesee & Jared, 2008; Lambert & Tucker, 1972; Swain & Lapkin, 1982).
FL reading and writing skills in less intensive bilingual elementary school programs were studied by Böttger & Müller (2020). 430 students in grade 4 completed an adapted version of the Cambridge English Test for Young Learners (Flyers & Movers), which assessed reading comprehension and writing skills in combined tasks. The findings indicated that “almost all students reach the language competence level A1 and many of them can even reach A2 level in different areas” (p. 40, own translation), although additional information (e.g., on the exact number of students reaching different levels and why; or on separate results for reading and writing) is, unfortunately, not provided.
There is a general lack of studies for the elementary school context in Germany and elsewhere with respect to children’s writing skills in the target language. Many studies conducted in Germany are rather exploratory and do not include any statistical analyses (e.g., Böttger & Müller, 2020; Burmeister, 2010; Rymarczyk, 2010). Steinlen (2018b) and Steinlen & Piske (2018a, 2020) compared English writing skills by 136 fourth graders who either attended a regular or a partial IM program. They reported that students in regular programs were at level A1, whereas students in a partial IM program were at level A2, with significant differences between the groups, even when controlling for socio-economic status, family language and cognitive ability.
Outside of Germany, it has also been shown that IM students generally outperform their peers in mainstream programs (e.g., Bae, 2007; Genesee, 1987, 2004; Wesche, 2002). Nevertheless, native-like writing skills in the FL as measured in terms of fluency, complexity (both lexical and grammatical), and accuracy are usually not achieved in IM programs (e.g., Wesche, 2002). IM students apparently produce similar errors in FL writing as their peers in mainstream programs (e.g., with respect to L1 transfer, e.g., Burmeister, 2010); however, their texts are longer and more complex in structure and wording (e.g., Bae, 2007; Rymarczyk, 2010; Swain, 1975). Most studies in this context have, however, been carried out with secondary school students (e.g., Nold et al., 2008; Zydatiss, 2009, for Germany; Bulon, Hendrik, Meunier & Van Goethem, 2017 for Belgium; Lyster, 2007; Swain & Lapkin, 1995 for Canada; Roquet & Pérez-Vidal, 2017 for Spain) with a focus on longer texts as well as on the use of grammatical structure and idiomatic and pragmatic expressions.
In general, the results strongly indicate that FL literacy skills develop particularly well in IM programs. This is probably due to the fact that a much higher number of writing activities are carried out in FL subject lessons than in regular FL lessons; and that the students not only receive more written input, but also have to produce more written output. Chapter 7 will point out many activities that are currently employed in FL bilingual (but also in regular FL) classrooms to foster FL literacy skills.
2.3.12 FL reading and writing in bilingual programs with different FL intensity
So far, a within-group comparison of FL reading and writing skills in bilingual programs with different FL intensity has not been carried out in Germany. For Canada, such a comparison included only immersion programs with different intensity. Comparing total vs. partial IM (i.e., 50/50) programs with an early start, the findings demonstrated that the gains (e.g., in reading) vis-a-vis early total IM will be lower, or roughly commensurate with the relative total time spent in the FL (Wesche, 2002). Late-starting low-intensity bilingual programs (i.e., 20/80 programs) may be quite successful in enhancing FL English proficiency of academically-inclined (Gymnasium) students (Wesche, 2002; see also Burmeister & Daniel, 2002; Wode, 1995, 2009). Evidence for 20/80 programs with an early start is, unfortunately, scarce. The findings of smaller-scale studies indicate improvement in FL learning (regarding FL reading, writing, grammar and vocabulary comprehension) from grade 1 to 4, but not always significant differences from year to year (e.g., Böttger & Müller, 2020; Couve et al., 2016; Steinlen & Gerdes, 2015).
There seem to be very few studies which compared low vs. high FL intensity programs, and these either relate to FL receptive vocabulary of elementary school children or to older learners. For example, Couve et al. (2016) compared 61 students in three different bilingual classes in Germany and assessed their performance for English receptive vocabulary, using the British English Vocabulary Scale. The students, who were tested in grade 1 and 2 (at T1 and T2), attended one of three programs where either 20%, 25% or 30-40% of the teaching time were conducted in English. The results yielded significant differences between the 25% and the 30-40% program and between the 20% and the 30-40% program but not between the 20% and the 25% program at both T1 and T2. Similarly, in terms of FL vocabulary gains within a year, significant differences between T1 and T2 were found for the 25% and the 30-40% program but not for the 20% program. Couve et al. (2016) attributed these group differences to class composition, with an uneven distribution of children in the three classes who either had previous knowledge of the target language and/or higher metalinguistic awareness due to a multilingual background.
Turning to older learners in different IM programs, Reeder, Buntain & Takakuwa (1999) examined almost 80 English students in grade 6, who attended either a 50/50 or an 80/20 French IM program in Canada. They were tested on FL French reading as well as on descriptive and narrative French writing. The results indicated significant between-group differences
