that the vegetable fossils that are found indicate a tropical growth of great size, drives us to the conclusion that the climate at the time these coal measures were formed was much warmer than it is now.
As already remarked, this extra warmth came from the earth itself before it had cooled down to its present temperature, rather than from the heat of the sun. There is nothing inconsistent in the thought that the sun may have been warmer in a former age than now. We may conceive that the earliest coal formations took place when the land stood above the surface of the water, and that the conditions were favorable for a rapid and luxuriant growth of vegetation; after this had gone on for a very long period of time, by some convulsion of nature the land surface was submerged under the ocean, when other mineral substances were deposited on top of this layer of vegetable growth, which hardened into a rock formation. At a later period the earth was again elevated above the surface of the water and the same process of growth and decay was repeated. These oscillations of the earth up and down occurred at enormously long intervals, until all of the various coal strata with their intermediate formations were completed. After this we must suppose that the whole was submerged to a great depth and for a very long period of time, because of the great number and various kinds of rock formations laid down by water that lie on top of the coal measures. This tremendous weight, as it was gradually builded up, subjected these vegetable strata to an inconceivable pressure. In some places this pressure was much greater than in others, which undoubtedly is one of the reasons why we find such differences in the structure and quality of coal. There were no doubt many other reasons for differences, one of them being the character of the vegetable growth out of which they were formed. Again, in some parts of the world these coal strata may have been subjected to a considerable degree of heat, which would change the structure of the formation, and in some cases drive off the volatile gases. One can easily imagine that heat was thus a factor in the formation of what is known as anthracite coal, so much less gaseous than the bituminous kinds. The anthracite beds seem to be denser and of a more homogeneous character. The lines of cleavage are not as prominent, but there are the same evidences of vegetable origin that we find in the bituminous formations.
It will be seen from what has gone before that coal was first wood. But wood is a product of sunshine. Thus the sun was the architect and builder of the trees and plants that were finally hermetically sealed under the great earth strata. The sun gathered up the material and set the forces in play which made the chemical combinations of the various elements in nature that enter into vegetable growth.
After the lapse of untold ages of time these great beds of stored-up sun-energy were discovered by man and their contents are dragged out to the earth's surface, to warm our houses, to drive the machinery of our factories, to send the locomotives flying across the continents and the steamships over the oceans. So important has this article become that if any one nation could control the output it would be able to paralyze all the navies and the manufacturing of the world.
If the coal of the world should become exhausted we should be confronted with a great problem. Fortunately for us, this is a problem that will have to be solved by the people of some future age, as the growth of wood will scarcely keep pace with the consumption of fuel. By that time the genius of man will have devised an economical means of storing the energy of the sunbeams directly for purposes of heat, light, and power.
CHAPTER IV.
SLATE AND SHALE.
Slate is one of the great commercial products of the world. As far back as the year 1877 the output of slate was not less than 1,000,000 tons per annum. The chief use to which slate is put is for covering buildings, and for this purpose it is better than any other known material. It is also used in the construction of billiard tables and for writing-slates; these latter uses are very insignificant as compared to its use in architecture. Slate, like building-stone and limestone, is quarried from the earth's crust and is found in the strata close above the Metamorphic rocks, near the beginning of what is called the Primary, or Paleozoic period. As compared with the coal formations it is very, very old.
There are different substances called slate that are not slate in the scientific use of that word. In general all stone formations are called slates that split up into thin layers. But the true slate is a special material which is formed by special processes of nature. The difference between slate and shale, for instance, is not one of ingredients, but of the process by which the ingredients are put together. All of the sedimentary rocks are formed by a deposit of sediment from the water on the bottom of the ocean. At one period the floods have brought down a certain kind of material in greater profusion than at others, and this is deposited in thin layers, and as it hardens there will be seams in it and the stratifications will be differently colored, the color depending upon the deposit at any particular time.
A bed of shale, like a bed of coal, has lines of cleavage in it, and if it is examined under a microscope it will be found that the sedimentary particles, like the twigs and leaves in the coal veins, lie with their longest dimensions in line with the plane of cleavage. Shale in color looks like slate, and an analysis of the material of which it is formed shows that shale and slate are both made from the same. There is, however, a structural difference between the two which is very peculiar and very interesting. The slate is ordinarily a denser material and the lines of cleavage are often at right angles with those that we find in ordinary shale.
A slab of shale will be of a uniform color on any one line of cleavage. The color may change at the next line, and generally does, to a slight extent. It is easy to see, then, if we could change the lines of cleavage in the shale, so as to run at right angles with their present lines, the face of a slab would show bands of different colors or shadings, such as we often see in slate. If you take a piece of clay that has been thoroughly mixed, and subject it to a very great pressure, and then examine the piece that has been submitted to pressure under a microscope and compare it with a piece of the clay after it has been thoroughly mixed, but has not been submitted to pressure, you will find that the two are very different in structure. The pressed clay will show that the particles of which it is made up have all turned, so that their longest dimensions are in a line at right angles with the direction of pressure. Here is an interesting fact that we must remember. And it is in this that we find the reason for the structural difference between shale and slate. The lines of cleavage in shale are not formed necessarily by pressure, but because in the disposition of the material of which it was formed the particles naturally laid themselves down so that their longest dimensions were on a horizontal line.
Ages after, when other rock and other formations had been laid down on top of the bed of deposited mud, the upheavals of the earth have so changed the lines of pressure upon this material and the pressure is so great that a rearrangement of the particles of which the slate is made up has taken place, so that their longest dimensions now are in a direction that crosses the stratifications as originally laid down.
The effect of this is twofold. First, the material is compressed into a denser, closer form, and then, the lines of cleavage are changed, or to express it in more common language, the grain has been changed. So that when it splits up it runs crosswise of the original layers as the water deposited them, and this produces the different shadings so often seen in different slate. Shale splits in line with its layers; slate splits across that line.
Let us go back a moment to our experiment with the lump of clay. If we examined the mixture before submitted to pressure we should find that the oblong particles of which it was made up would stand in all directions, hit or miss, and if we should dry this lump of clay it would have no special lines of cleavage. But the moment we have submitted it to a certain amount of pressure we
