R-152a – 1,1-difluoroethane.Table 7.24 Properties of R-227ea – 1,1,1,2,3,3,3-heptafluoropropane.Table 7.25 Properties of R-245fa – 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane.Table 7.26 Properties of R-365mfc – 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluorobutane.Table 7.27 Properties of R-43-10mee – 1,1,1,2,2,3,4,5,5,5-decafluoropentane.Table 7.28 Properties of R- 1132a - 1,1-difluoroethylene.Table 7.29 Properties of R-1234yf–2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene.Table 7.30 Properties of R-1233zd – trans-1-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoropropene.Table 7.31 Properties of R-1234ze – 1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene.Table 7.32 Properties of R-1243zf – 3,3,3-trifluoropropene.Table 7.33 Properties of R-1327 – 1,1,3,3,4,4,4-heptafluorobutene.Table 7.34 Properties of R-1336mzz-Z – cis-1,1,1,4,4,4–hexafluoro-2-butene.Table 7.35 Properties of R-1345zfc Pentafluoro-1-butene.8 Chapter 8Table 8.1 Main commercial classes of fluorocarbons.Table 8.2 Main applications for HFC and PFC substitutes for ODS [1].Table 8.3 ODPs and GWPs of the main commercial classes of fluorocarbons [3].Table 8.4 Ozone depleting potential values of CFC’s and Halon’s classified accor...Table 8.5 Atmospheric lifetimes, global emissions, ODP, and global warming poten...Table 8.6 Global warming potentials (GWP) for some representative compounds [19–...Table 8.7 Schedule of phase-out of HCFC’s according to the US EPA [35].Table 8.8 U.S. action to meet the Montreal protocol phaseout schedule [36].
9 Chapter 9Table 9.1 Composition (%) of substitute refrigerant blends [2].Table 9.2 Azeotropic blends (500 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowa...Table 9.3 Azeotropic Blends (500 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowa...Table 9.4 Zeotropic blends (400 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowab...Table 9.5 Zeotropic blends (400 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowab...Table 9.6 Zeotropic blends (400 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowab...Table 9.7 Zeotropic blends (400 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowab...Table 9.8 Zeotropic blends (400 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowab...Table 9.9 Zeotropic blends (400 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowab...Table 9.10 Zeotropic blends (400 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowa...Table 9.11 Zeotropic blends (400 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowa...Table 9.12 Zeotropic blends (400 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowa...Table 9.13 Zeotropic blends (400 series refrigerants) characteristics and allowa...Table 9.14 HFOs and HFO/HFC Blends [10].
10 Chapter 10Table 10.1 Substitutes in household refrigerators and freezers.Table 10.2 Substitutes in refrigerated transport.Table 10.3 Substitutes in retail food refrigeration.Table 10.4 Passenger air conditioning in light-duty, medium-duty, heavy-duty and...
11 Chapter 11Table 11.1 Examples of proliferation of fluorocarbons in the last ~100 years.Table 11.2 The impact of four generations of refrigerants on ozone depletion and...Table 11.3 Properties of first generation refrigerants [4].Table 11.4 Application ranges of natural refrigerants [2].Table 11.5 Properties of second generation refrigerants [11].Table 11.6 Properties of the third generation refrigerants (NBP = Normal Boiling...Table 11.7 Chemical composition of fluorinated hydrocarbons [15].Table 11.8 Examples of hydrofluoroolefins.Table 11.9 Examples of boiling points of HFO refrigerants.Table 11.10 Range of global warming potential of the second, third and fourth ge...Table 11.11 Physical properties of HFO-1123 and HFO-1234yf refrigerants [18].Table 11.12 Safety groups & flammability test requirements per ANSI/ASHRAE stand...Figure 11.3 Safety groups & flammability test requirements ANSI/ASHRAE standard ...Table 11.13 Composition of R-448A is an example of HFO and HFC blend for commerc...Table 11.14 Properties of R-448A (HFO and HFC blend) [21].Table 11.15 Physical properties of HFO-1123 and HFO-1234yf refrigerant mixtures ...Table 11.16 Standard parameters of some ASHREA natural refrigerant candidates - ...Table 11.17 Natural and other alternative refrigerant characteristics [2].Table 11.18 Applications of natural refrigerants [27].Table 11.19 Properties of natural refrigerants indicating high saturation pressu...Table 11.20 General safety properties and characteristics of some synthetic and ...
List of Illustrations
1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Depiction of Dobson Unit for ozone quantitative measurement [6].Figure 1.2 Granted patents related to HFO-1234yf [8].Figure 1.3 Global refrigerant usage, by application [8].Figure 1.4 Global vapor compression refrigerant types [8].Figure 1.5 Global refrigerants for all applications [8].Figure 1.6 Groupings of refrigerants by GWP [8].Figure 1.7 Breakdown (2018) of worldwide consumption of fluoropolymers by Type [...
2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Two examples of isomeric hydrofluorooelefin [10].
3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Photographs of fluorine minerals: (a) fluorspar, (b) fluorapatite, an...Figure 3.2 Historical US imports and prices of acid grade fluorspar [7].Figure 3.3 Global mined quantities of acid-grade fluorspar during 1993 to 2016 [...Figure 3.4 Annual U.S. import quantities of acid-grade fluorspar (“acidspar”), 1...Figure 3.5 U.S. imports of hydrofluoric acid, 1993–2016 [8].Figure 3.6 Hydrofluoric acid manufacturing process flow diagram [14].Figure 3.7 Two reactions to prepare 1,1,1 trifluoro-2, fluorodichloroethane [23]...
4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Global refrigerant market volume by application in 2016 [3].Figure 4.2 Example of large oil-free compressor [TurboCor® Compressor, Courtesy ...Figure 4.3 Routes to manufacturing of select fluoropolymers [6].Figure 4.4 Examples of cellular solids: (a) open-cell polyurethane foam (b) clos...Figure 4.5 Examples of evolution of fluorocarbon used for foam blowing [13].Figure 4.6 Schematic diagram of the Dunlop polyurethane flexible foam process [1...Figure 4.7 Schematic of the cut-away of the construction of aerosol can [17].Figure 4.8 Comparison of fire-extinguishing and suppressing agents for engines [...Figure 4.9 Chemical structure of hexafluorobutadiene.Figure 4.10 Breakdown of HCFCs and HFC consumption in applications by mass [60].Figure 4.11 “GWP-weighted” breakdown of HCFCs and HFC consumption expressed in t...Figure 4.12 Breakdown of RACHP applications based on the depiction in Figure 4.1...Figure 4.13 Decrease in the average GWP in the EU market – POM= placing on the m...
5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Illustration of a Carnot cycle on a PV diagram – depicting the work d...Figure 5.2 Illustration of a Carnot cycle operating as a heat engine on a temper...Figure 5.3 A comparison of operating steps of refrigerator (R) and a heat pump (...Figure 5.4 Major components of reversed Carnot cycle and temperature (T) vs ent...Figure 5.5 Schematic diagram of an Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle.
6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Ternary chemical composition diagram of methane-based chlorofluorocar...Figure 6.2 Ternary composition diagram of ethane-based chlorofluorocarbons.Figure 6.3 Ternary composition diagram of propane-based chlorofluorocarbons.Figure 6.4 Chemical formulas of actual methane based fluorocarbons along with th...Figure 6.5 Chemical formulas of actual ethane based fluorocarbons along with the...Figure 6.6 Schematic of the direct halogen exchange process for CFC preparation.Figure 6.7 Chemical structure of tetrakis(triphenylphosphine) palladium(0) catal...Figure 6.8 Reaction schemes to produce HFO-1243 using chlorofluoropropenes [67].
7 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Primary sources of stratospheric chlorine in early 1990’s [2].Figure 8.2 Phase-down plan of HCFC for developed countries (non-Article 5) and d...Figure 8.3 Size of the ozone hole over Antarctica during 1996-2012 [7].Figure 8.4 Image from the Antarctic Ozone Hole (blue hue) - the average area of ...Figure 8.5 Image from the Antarctic Ozone Hole (blue hue) in which the Hole at 1...Figure 8.6 Chemical structures of three allotropes of Oxygen.Figure 8.7 O3 is naturally produced in the stratosphere by a two-step reactive p...Figure 8.8 Main steps in stratospheric depletion of O3 [11].Figure 8.9 Ozone destruction in tropical and middle latitude (Cycle 1) [15].Figure 8.10 Ozone destruction cycles in polar regions (Cycles 2 and 3) [11].Figure 8.11 Comparison of (a) ODP and (b) GWP of various fluorocarbon refrigeran...
8 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Comparison of Evaporating and condensing behavior of Azeotropic and Z...Figure 9.2 Evaporating and condensing behavior of zeotropic blends [8].
9 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Refrigeration demand in its four applications [1].Figure 11.2 Refrigerants – historical development [2].Figure 11.4 Effect of HFC-32 on the LFL of the mixture with HFOs [18].Figure 11.5 Effect of HFC-32 on the GWP of the blends with HFOs [18].Figure 11.6 The drop-in test results of HFO-1123 mixed
