two factors: originality and functionality. A distinction can and should be made between little-c creativity, that is, “everyday problem solving and the ability to adapt to change,” and big-C Creativity, that is, “when a person solves a problem or creates an object that has a major impact on how other people think, feel, and live their lives” (Kersting, 2003, p. 40). Big-C Creativity is much rarer than little-c creativity. An example of Big-C Creativity is the formulation of counseling theories such as those devised by Sigmund Freud and Carl Rogers (Gladding, 2008). However, individual counseling mostly involves little-c creativity, as counselors work with clients to find more productive and constructive ways of living. Regardless of whether it is big-C or little-c, both types of creativity involve a six-step process (Witmer, 1985):
1 Preparation, during which enough data and background information are gathered to make a new response
2 Incubation, in which the mind is allowed to wander away from a task or problem
3 Ideation, in which ideas are generated but not judged, a type of divergent thinking
4 Illumination, in which there is a breakthrough in a person’s thinking, a kind of enlightenment
5 Evaluation, during which convergent and critical thinking occur. A part of evaluation is fine-tuning and refining thoughts or behaviors that have not been thoroughly considered.
6 Verification/production, during which an original idea becomes a new or refined product or action. In this last step, a person’s life changes forever because it is impossible to see or be in the world again as before.
Although these general aspects of creativity are pertinent to counseling, the profession itself, through its theories, has even more specific ways of viewing creativity (Gladding, 1995). For example, the psychoanalytic viewpoint is that creativity is a positive defense mechanism, known as sublimation. From a gestalt perspective, however, creativity is an integrative process in which people become more congruent with themselves and their environments and thus try new behaviors. Imagery theorists, however, argue that creativity is a matter of envisioning mental pictures and implementing these pictures in reality.
Regardless of how it is seen, creativity is valued in society and in the culture of counseling. Through creativity, new, exciting, and productive ways of working, living, and healing are formulated and implemented with individuals, couples, and families (Gillam, 2018).
A History of the Creative Arts in the Helping Professions
Having considered the vital aspects of what creativity is and what the creative arts are, we can now examine in an informed manner the ways in which the creative arts have affected counseling. Many of the creative arts, such as drama, music, and dance, have had long and distinguished associations with healing and mental health services (Corsini, 2001; Westhenen & Fritz, 2014). Almost all art forms have been used since ancient times to help prevent distress and remediate internal and external strife. Some of their most notable contributions to mental health services are chronicled here according to broad time periods.
Ancient Cultures and the Arts
Ancient civilizations valued the creative arts for what they believed were their healing properties as well as their aesthetic properties (Atkins et al., 2003). For example, the ancient Egyptians, as early as 500 B.C.E., encouraged the mentally ill “to pursue artistic interests and attend concerts and dances” (Fleshman & Fryear, 1981, p. 12). The idea was that, through such activities, feelings could be released and people would be made whole again. Likewise, the ancient Greeks used drama and music as a means of helping the disturbed achieve catharsis, relieve themselves of pent-up emotions, and return to balanced lives. The connection and importance of music in the lives of the Greeks is symbolized in the Greek god Apollo, who was both the god of music and the god of medicine. The Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle often talked about the effects of music and its importance to the health of the whole person (Peters, 2001). They advocated the careful control of music to promote many moods, from relaxation to excitement (Burkholder et al., 2020).
The early Hebrews used music and lyrical verse too in helping to develop integrated and healthy relationships. For example, when individuals, such as King Saul, were emotionally volatile, music served to calm them down (MacIntosh, 2003). Music was also used to remind the Hebrew people of the covenant relationship they shared with Yahweh (God) and with one another. The psalms, for instance, played a major part in worship and in creating a sense of community through religious rituals. At about this same time, in ancient Asian cultures, such as in China, music was emphasized as well. For example, Confucius loved music and believed that it was essential for a harmonious life (Y. Lai, 1999).
Creative Reflection
What art or arts were you first drawn to as a child? Think back to what attracted you to them. How has your experience since childhood influenced your thoughts, feelings, and experiences with the art or art forms that you initially found fascinating?
Similarly, the ancient Roman philosophers encouraged the public to use the arts to achieve health and happiness. Lucretius, Cicero, and Seneca “all spoke in different ways of the healing power of ‘discourse.’ Poetry, Lucretius said, could disperse the ‘terrors of the soul’” (Coughlin, 1990, p. A6). Another belief among the Romans was that the study of humane letters could alleviate pain. Finally, music, cymbals, flutes, and other sounds were used by the Romans to dispel melancholy as well as to promote wellness (Peters, 2001).
Overall, ancient world healers saw power in the arts. They encouraged their followers to experience these forms of creativity vigorously. They believed that doing so had a significant positive impact on mental and physical health.
The Middle Ages and the Arts
In the Middle Ages (at least in Europe), magic and superstition replaced the arts in many quarters as the primary way to treat people who were emotionally disturbed. Yet even in these Dark Ages, the traditions and actual works of music, art, and literature were preserved in monasteries and were considered in the Judeo-Christian tradition to be a relevant part of the process of healing. For example, in medieval times, French monasteries used music to soothe the sick (Covington, 2001). Another interesting example of the use of the arts in the service of health was the treatment of the disorder known as tarantism. This disorder arose in southern Italy and was believed to be caused by the bite of a tarantula. Healers thought that the only cure for this disease was music accompanied by the performance of a dance known as the tarantella.
The use of music, dance, painting, and literature as healing forces in African, Native American, and Asian cultures was even more widespread (Fleming, 1994). For example, African music developed into a form with strong, driving rhythms and choral singing that helped bind communities together. In addition, Asian, African, and Native American art in the form of paintings, jewelry, masks, and architecture flourished and helped distinguish cultures and people in these geographic areas. It was during this time period in the Americas that the arts became an integral part of Native American healing (Dufrene & Coleman, 1994). The use of metaphor and healing stories became especially powerful.
The Arts From the Renaissance Through the 19th Century
During the European Renaissance (starting in the 1500s), the use of the arts was emphasized in preventive and remedial mental health services, as it had been in ancient cultures. For example, in the 16th century, an Italian named Vittorino de Feltre emphasized poetry,
