8.8. Cost analysis
8.9. Future developments
8.10. Conclusion
8.11. Acknowledgments
8.12. References
14 Index
List of Illustrations
1 IntroductionFigure I.1. Abundance of elements in the Earth’s crust (Pan et al. 2013). For a ...
2 Chapter 1Figure 1.1. Comparison of charge/discharge curves for Li//LiCoO2 and Na//NaCoO2 ...Figure 1.2. Average voltage (V) and energy density (Wh kg−1) versus gravimetric ...Figure 1.3. Structure field map of ABO2 compounds. Modified with permission from...Figure 1.4. Schematic illustrations of the crystal structures of O3-, P3-, and P...Figure 1.5. Schematic illustrations of crystal structures reported for partly de...Figure 1.6. (a) Calculated formation energies versus composition for NaxCoO2 con...Figure 1.7. Schematic illustrations of (a) P2-type and two choices of O2-type st...Figure 1.8. Comparison of galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of layered O3 an...Figure 1.9. (a) Initial charge and discharge curves of Na//NaCrO2 cells at a rat...Figure 1.10. (a) Schematic illustrations of crystal structures for O’3 and zig-z...Figure 1.11. (a) Potential profile (second cycle) of Na2Mn3O7 upon (de)intercala...Figure 1.12. Comparison of galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of layered O3 a...Figure 1.13. Charge/discharge curves of P2, P’3 and O3 type NaxCoO2 in Na cells....Figure 1.14. Comparison of galvanostatic charge/discharge curves of layered P2 t...
3 Chapter 2Figure 2.1. A gathering of the working potential and the specific capacity of di...Figure 2.2. Illustration of the structural frameworks of the main families of po...Figure 2.3. (a) NASICON (generally rhombohedral) and anti-NASICON (generally mon...Figure 2.4. Galvanostatic electrochemical first cycles obtained for (a) Na3V2(PO...Figure 2.5. Accessible compositions and the corresponding voltages of the Mn+/M(...Figure 2.6. Accessible compositions and the corresponding voltages of the Mn+/ M...Figure 2.7. (a) DSC curve recorded for Na3V2(PO4)3 from −30 to 225°C showing the...Figure 2.8. (a) Charge/discharge profiles for the C-coated Na3V2(PO4)3 sample at...Figure 2.9. (a) Galvanostatic cycling at current rate of C/2 or C/10 at 200oC, w...Figure 2.10. (a) Typical charge–discharge profiles of a liquid-based hard carbon...Figure 2.11. Electrochemical signatures of (a) Na3Al0.5V1.5(PO4)3, (b) Na2TiV(PO...Figure 2.12. (a) Structural framework of Na3V2(PO4)2F3. (b) Distribution of the ...Figure 2.13. (a) Voltage versus capacity electrochemical curves obtained for a h...Figure 2.14. Potential–composition electrochemical curves obtained upon Na+ extr...Figure 2.15. (a) Vanadium K edge XANES spectra collected operando during charge ...Figure 2.16. (a) Comparison of the IR spectra of Na3V2(PO4)2F3, Na3V2(PO4)2F2.4O...Figure 2.17. (Left) Comparison of the electrochemical charge/discharge data obta...Figure 2.18. Electrochemical cycling performance and coulombic efficiencies of (...Figure 2.19. (a) The computed voltage curves in the range of 1 ≤ x ≤ 4 for NaxV2...Figure 2.20. The charge/discharge profile of Na3V2(PO4)2F3 with a high cut-off v...Figure 2.21. Comparison of the defect formation energies in NaV2(PO4)2F3 and Na2...Figure 2.22. Calculated voltage profiles of Na3V2(PO4)2F3 with different anionic...
4 Chapter 3Figure 3.1. Hard carbon models as proposed by (a) Warren (1941), (b) Franklin (1...Figure 3.2. Temperature programmed desorption coupled with mass spectrometry sho...Figure 3.3. (a) Representation of the main categories of precursors used to prep...Figure 3.4. Schematic representation of lignocellulosic biomass structure (credi...Figure 3.5. (a) XRD pattern for hard carbon derived from phenolic resin, synthes...Figure 3.6. TEM micrographs of PAN-derived hard carbon at (a) 1,550°C and (b) 2,...Figure 3.7. Surface area values determined from (a) N2 and (b) CO2 adsorption me...Figure 3.8. Comparison between (a) gas adsorption (quantification of open pores ...Figure 3.9. (a) Typical SAXS patterns for hard carbon. Samples synthesized from ...Figure 3.10. Schematic representation of oxygen-based functional groups evolving...Figure 3.11. (a) Disorder degree determined by either the ID/IG or IG/ID ratio b...Figure 3.12. (a) Reversible capacity and (b) ICE of different hard carbons as a ...Figure 3.13. Charge/discharge profiles for (a) low surface area hard carbon and ...Figure 3.14. SEM images of (a) PVC nanofibers (Reprinted with permission from Ba...Figure 3.15. Performance obtained in 18,650 cells: (a) long-term cyclability at ...Figure 3.16. (a) Visual representation of the card-house model on Na-ion storage...Figure 3.17. Representation of different storage mechanisms in hard carbons. (a)...
5 Chapter 4Figure 4.1. Main families of negative electrodes for NIB (Li et al. 2018a). For ...Figure 4.2. Crystal structures of (a) rutile, (b) anatase, (c) TiO2(B) and (d) b...Figure 4.3. (a) Charge/discharge potential profiles of rhombohedral anatase part...Figure 4.4. The phase transformation (a) and the related structural modification...Figure 4.5. (a) Cycling performance at 1 C and (b) rate capability of Na2Ti3O7 a...Figure 4.6. (a) Electrochemical charge/discharge signature at C/10 and (b) cycle...Figure 4.7. Schematic diagram for phase transition from 2H-MoS2 to 1T-MoS2. The ...Figure 4.8. Preparation of MXenes form the corresponding MAX phases (Naguib et a...Figure 4.9. (a) Redox reaction mechanisms of Na4C8H2O6 at 0.3 and 2.3 V, (b) ini...Figure 4.10. Capacity retention versus Na+/Na at C/20 of (a) siloxene and (b) ge...Figure 4.11. (a) Transmission electron microscope (TEM) image and (b) high-resol...Figure 4.12. Schematic illustration of the chemical bonding between phosphorus, ...Figure 4.13. Example of a phosphorene-graphene hybrid material as a high capacit...Figure 4.14. Proposed mechanism for the sodiation/desodiation of black P (adapte...Figure 4.15. (a) Capacity retention of Sb/Li and Sb/Na half-cells cycled at C/2 ...Figure 4.16. (a) Ex situ 23Na NMR spectra of cycled Sb electrodes at different s...Figure 4.17. (a) Composition−voltage profile for Pb/Na cells cycled at C/10 (top...Figure 4.18. (a) Timeline of conversion materials successfully tested versus Na ...Figure 4.19. (a) SnTe, a typical multistep reaction mechanism including conversi...Figure 4.20. Calculated differences in (a) cell potential and (b) volume change ...Figure 4.21. (a) SEM and (b and c) TEM images of 5 nm Fe2O3. (d) Particle size d...Figure 4.22. (a) Preparation and (b) TEM image of mesoporous Co3O4 preparation v...Figure 4.23. (a) Cycling stability of SnS2 for six different electrode formulati...
6 Chapter 5Figure 5.1. (a) Linear sweep voltammetry of a sodium cell with two electrolytes:...Figure 5.2. Cycling performance of the NVP/C/IL/HC at different current densitie...Figure 5.3. (a) Cycling performance of sodium metal cells with an NVP/C cathode ...Figure 5.4. (a) Phase diagram of NaTFSI in [P111i4][TFSI] binary systems and (b)...Figure 5.5. Galvanostatic cycling of sodium symmetrical cell with 90 mol% NaFSI ...Figure 5.6. Schematic of the main types of charge carriers and their charges pre...Figure 5.7. Snap-shot from an MD trajectory showing fast ions to cluster. Reprin...
7 Chapter 6Figure 6.1. Schematic illustration of SEI structures (Peled and Menkin 2017). Fo...Figure 6.2. A schematic
