of 1 kg of clean grain per hour. On analysis, the grain contained about 23% protein as compared to about 11% for modern cultivated wheat (Table 1.2).
Table 1.2 Analysis of wild and cultivated wheats.
Source: Adapted from Harlan (1967).
| Ether extract (%) | Crude fiber (%) | Crude protein (%) | NFE (%)a | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wild einkorn | 2.64 | 2.33 | 22.83 | 60.04 |
| Modern wheat | 1.50 | 1.33 | 10.79 | 75.01 |
a Nitrogen‐free extract or carbohydrates other than fiber.
In all, Jardin (1967) lists about 60 species of wild grasses that have been harvested for their seeds in Africa within recent decades. Yanovsky (1936) lists approximately 38 for North America, and Irvine (1957) and others mention about 25 for Australia. The exact number cannot be given because of problems with synonyms and identification. Relatively little is known about wild grass harvesting in Europe and Asia although Oryza, Panicum, Digitaria, and Glyceria have been mentioned.
Legumes (Potential Pulses)
Gathering peoples are evidently attracted to Leguminosae of various kinds. Whole pods may be used, as well as seeds only, pods only, or even the tissues inside the pods surrounding the seeds. Some legumes have edible tubers and others have leaves or young shoots suitable for pot‐herbs. Not infrequently the material harvested is poisonous and must be detoxified before use. Poisonous materials can be used for stunning fish, stupefying emus, or making poison arrows.
As with the Gramineae, certain genera appear frequently on plant lists and several distinct species of a given genus may be used in different parts of the world. Genera with wide distributions may be very widely used. For example, many species of Acacia are exploited in Australia, several are used in Africa and Asia, but only a few are used in the Americas. More species of Prosopis (mesquite) are used in the Americas, however, than in Africa, Asia, and Australia. Different species of Canavalia are harvested in Central and South America and in Southeast Asia and Australia. Vigna and Dolichos are widely exploited in Africa, Asia, and Australia while several species of Phaseolus are harvested in the Americas. Tephrosia spp. have been used for fish poisons on five continents.
Root and Tuber Plants
Roots, tubers, rhizomes, and bulbs have been widely harvested for untold millennia. The choice depends more on what is abundant and available than anything else. The genus Dioscorea is very large and includes about 600 species distributed throughout the warmer parts of the world. Many produce tubers that are edible or rendered edible after detoxification. About 30 species are harvested in the wild in Africa (Jardin, 1967) and several have been domesticated. Wild yam harvests are important in India, Southeast Asia, the South Pacific, Australia, and tropical America.
Tubers and rhizomes of the Araceae are widely harvested in the tropics and a few are found in the more temperate zones. Bulbs of the Liliaceae are popular where they occur. Yanovsky (1936) lists about 90 species belonging to the lily family (Liliaceae) that supplied food for North American natives. No less than 17 species of wild onion (Allium) were listed, and even the death camus Zygadenus was eaten after suitable detoxification. Tuberous legumes in the genera Solanum, Ipomoea, Nymphaea, and Eleocharis have been widely harvested, and Cyperus rotundus L. has supplied food in North America, Africa, Asia, Australia, and Europe.
Oil Plants
Most gatherers had periodic access to animal fats, but sources of vegetable oil were also sought. In the wetter tropics, the fruits of various palms (Palmaceae) were especially attractive. The African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is still exploited in the wild as is its counterpart in South America [E. guineensis Jacq. (syn. E. melanococca Gaertn.)]. Other palms also supply oil in quantity including, of course, the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). Seeds of Compositae, Cruciferae, and Cucurbitaceae are harvested on every continent, partly for their oil content. Many nuts and some fruits are high in oil and are still harvested in the wild. Some familiar ones are Aleurites (Candlenut or tung‐oil tree), Persea (avocado), Theobroma (cacao), Pistacea (pistachio), Olea (olive), and Butyrospermum (shea butter tree or karité). Several species of Sesamum and Linum are harvested for their oily seeds.
Fruits and Nuts
Long lists of fruits and nuts can be compiled, but it is not necessary to go into much detail here. We need only point out that the same patterns prevail as for grass seeds, legumes, and oil plants in that different species of the same genera are exploited almost everywhere they occur. In temperate zones, for example, species of walnut (Juglans), hickory (Carya), hazelnut (Corylus), chestnut (Castanea), beech (Betula), oak (Quercus), hawthorn (Crataegus), hackberry (Celtis), plum‐cherry (Prunus), bramblefruits (Rubus), grape (Vitis), elderberry (Sambucus), pine‐nuts (Pinus), and others were popular with gatherers in Europe, Asia, North America, Africa, and Australia. In the tropics, some of the popular genera were (and are) Ficus, Citrus, Musa, Syzygium, Pandanus, Spondias, Adansonia, Artocarpus, Annona, and Carica. If a plant appeals to one gathering tribe, a similar plant is probably used by another tribe, even on another continent.
Vegetables
Because the same general pattern is operative, it might be worthwhile to call attention to repetitive patterns in two families whose produce appeals to gatherers.
Solanaceae. The genus Solanum is found on every continent and includes several hundred species. About 15 species are gathered for food in Africa, 9 are listed for North America, and several are found in South America, India, and Australia. Some must be detoxified before being eaten. The fruits are the parts eaten in most cases, but leaves may be used as pot‐herbs and a number of species have edible tubers. Physalis is another genus widely exploited with at least 10 species gathered in North America plus others in South America, Africa, Europe, Asia, and Australia. Species of wild Capsicum, Cyphomandra, and Lycopersicon were gathered in the Americas. The genus Nicotiana was a favorite of gathering tribes in the Americas and Australia. Several distinct species were involved and they were utilized almost wherever they occurred. In the Americas, the tobaccos were both chewed and smoked, while it was a masticatory only in Australia. Lime of some sort was often mixed with the quid. Datura was used as a drug, medicine, or hallucinogen in both eastern and western hemispheres.
Cucurbitaceae. Plants of this family were often attractive to gathering peoples and in some cases were very important because of their abundance. In Australia, Maiden (1889) observed that Cucumis trigonus Roxb. was sometimes “growing in such abundance that the whole country seemed strewed with the fruit.” In southern Africa, the landscape may be almost cluttered with wild
