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*This is a revised version of a paper presented at the conference: Political Economy of Emerging Market Countries: The Challenges of Developing More Humane Societies organized by Niehaus Center for Globalization and
1India attained independence from British colonial rule in 1947. For an overview of India’s planned development, see Chakravarty (1987).
2On these reforms and their impact, see, e.g. Bhadhuri and Nayyar (1996), Joshi and Little (1996), Srinivasan (2000), and Dreze and Sen (1995, 2013).
3For an analysis of Indian growth since independence and a discussion of these issues, see Balakrishnan (2010).
4See Nagaraj (2015) and the ensuing debate in the pages of the Economic and Political Weekly.
5There is a lack of reliable income data on India, although recently (in 2004–2005 and 2011–2012) the India Human Development Survey conducted by National Council for Applied Economic Research and University of Maryland collected data on incomes.
6In a departure from past practice, a large survey was conducted in 2011–2012, just two years after the previous one.
7Before data from the 61st round was released, several studies attempted to make the data from the 55th round comparable to data from previous rounds. See, e.g. Himanshu and Sen (2004a, 2004b) and the references therein.
8The difference in wages has increased from Rs. 900 to 1800.
9L(0.5)
10For a discussion of debates and controversies on Indian poverty, see Subramanian (2012, 2014), Vakulabharanam and Motiram (2012), and the references therein.
11Technically, this is an instance of first order stochastic dominance.
12Prior to 1999–2000 (55th Round), the NSS surveys did not enumerate OBCs separately, but combined them with the Others. So, it is only possible to examine the inequality between scheduled and non-scheduled groups.
13Rural households are divided into five types based upon their main source of livelihood, Self-employed in agriculture, Self-employed in Non-agriculture, Agricultural Laborers, Other
