T. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record: England 1066–1307 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1979).
28
Там же, с. 261.
29
Jurg Zulliger, ‘“Ohne Kommunikation wurde Chaos herrschen”: Zur Bedeutung von Informationsaustauch, Briefverkehr und Boten bei Bernhard von Clairvaux’, Archiv fur Kulturgeschichte, 78 (1996), pp. 251-76.
30
Chris Given-Wilson, Chronicles: The Writing of History in Medieval England (London: Hambledon, 2004), p. 21.
31
Там же, с. 13.
32
J. K. Hyde, ‘Italian Pilgrim Literature in the Late Middle Ages’, in his Literacy and its Uses: Studies on Late Medieval Italy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), pp. 136-61.
33
Sophia Menache, The Vox Dei: Communication in the Middle Ages (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 116.
34
Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150–1750 (New York: Zone, 2001).
35
Hyde, ‘Ethnographers in Search of an Audience’, in his Literacy and its Uses, pp. 162–216.
36
Jonathan Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Medieval Religion (London: Faber, 1975), p. 257; Debra Birch, ‘Jacques de Vitry and the Ideology of Pilgrimage’, in J. Stopford (ed.), Pilgrimage Explored (Woodbridge: York Medieval Press, 1999).
37
Dianna Webb, Pilgrims and Pilgrimage in the Medieval West (London: I. B. Tauris, 2001); Sumption, Pilgrimage.
38
Albert Kapr, Johann Gutenberg: The Man and his Invention (London: Scolar Press, 1996), pp. 71-5.
39
Debra Birch, Pilgrimage to Rome in the Middle Ages (Woodbridge: Boydell, 1998).
40
Peter Spufford, Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002), p. 23.
41
О посольской корреспонденции идет речь ниже в главе 5.
42
Yves Renouard, ‘Comment les papes d’Avignon expediaient leur courrier’, Revue historique, 180 (1937), pp. 1-29; idem, The Avignon Papacy, 1305–1403 (London: Faber, 1970); Anne-Marie Hayez, ‘Les courriers des papes d’Avignon sous Innocent VI et Urbain V (1352–1370)’, in La circulation des nouvelles au moyen age (Paris: Sorbonne, 1994), pp. 37–46.
43
Renouard, ‘Les papes d’Avignon’, pp. 20-3.
44
Письмо, предназначенное для Рима, написанное 3 марта 1321 года, отправилось из Авиньона только 18 апреля. Письмо в Венецию, написанное 6 октября 1321 г., отправилось 31 октября. Отправка письма в Пуатье в 1360 г. была отложена на два месяца. Renouard, ‘Les papes d’Avignon’, p. 28.
45
Suzanne Budelot, Messageries universitaires et messageries royales (Paris: Domat, 1934).
46
Hilde de Rodder-Symoens (ed.), A History of the University in Europe. Volume I: Universities in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 114.
47
C. H. Haskins, ‘The Lives of Mediaeval Students as Illustrated in their Letters’, in his Studies in Mediaeval Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1929), pp. 1-35.
48
Alain Boureau, ‘The Letter-Writing Norm, a Mediaeval Invention’, in Roger Chartier (ed.), Correspondence: Models of Letter-Writing from the Middle Ages to the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Polity, 1997), pp. 24–58.
49
Haskins, ‘Lives of Medieval Students’, p. 10.
50
Ibid., pp. 15–16.
51
Ниже, глава 15.
52
Philip O. Beale, A History of the Post in England from the Romans to the Stuarts (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998), p. 22.
53
Ibid., pp. 24-7.
54
J. K. Hyde, ‘The Role of Diplomatic Correspondence and Reporting’, in his Literacy and its Uses, pp. 217-59, here pp. 224-6.
55
Там же, с. 244.
56
Ниже, глава 5.
57
Beale, History of the Post, pp. 30–39.
58
Given-Wilson, Chronicles, p. 109.
59
Beale,
