withdrawal, defensive, disruptive, and/or stereotypic behavior (Hubrecht 1993; Overall 1997). Inhibited or withdrawal behavior refers to activity depression or the absence of normal behaviors (such as grooming, eating, sleeping, eliminating, stretching, greeting people, etc.). Defensive behavior involves characteristic postural and/or vocal responses (e.g. barking, growling, lunging, hissing, swatting). Disruptive behavior involves the destruction of cage contents and/or the creation of a hiding place. Repetitive pacing, pawing, jumping and spinning are examples of stereotypic behaviors. Behavioral signs of stress and related negative emotional states may manifest as active communication signals or passive behaviors. Active signals may be subtle or obvious and include vocalization (growling, hissing), visual cues (facial expression, posturing of the body, ears, and tail), scent marking (urine, feces, various glands of the skin), and overt aggression among others. Passive signs include the inability to rest or sleep, feigned sleep, poor appetite, constant hiding, the absence of grooming, activity depression (decreased play and exploratory behavior) and social withdrawal (Griffin 2006; Rochlitz et al. 1998; Wemelsfelder 2005). High‐density housing exacerbates these signs.
When cats and dogs are well adjusted and their housing and husbandry meet their behavioral needs, they display a wide variety of normal behaviors. Indeed, the best measures of emotional wellbeing and health in shelter cats and dogs are regular displays of species typical behaviors – in other words, cats should be “acting like cats” and dogs should be “acting like dogs”: sleeping comfortably, but not all the time; exploring and playing at will; eating and eliminating normally; scratching or chewing; stretching and grooming; relaxing; seeking and receiving social contact – behaviors that, when displayed regularly and appropriately, indicate positive emotional states and good health.
Proper housing and enrichment, including social companionship, physical exercise, mental stimulation, and positive training, combined with a positive emotional environment are essential components of a comprehensive behavioral wellness program (see Table 2.2). Understanding the importance of minimizing stress and other negative emotional states and recognizing and responding to them are keys to maintaining proper behavioral welfare. Active daily monitoring by staff who are trained to recognize indicators of stress, fear, anxiety, and frustration is required to detect and respond to the needs of animals that are displaying these indicators. Some indicators that an animal needs additional attention include persistent hiding, agonistic behavior with conspecifics, activity withdrawal, or other markers as previously described. Staff should record their findings daily to ensure timely and appropriate steps are taken to decrease stress and enhance the animal's ability to cope in the shelter environment. Though subjective, staff should also attempt to estimate the severity of stress and note trends: What is the animal's emotional state? Is the animal acclimating to the environment? Assessment of the incidence and prevalence of stress and other negative emotional states among the population serves to measure the effects of the shelter's animal care protocols and establish important baselines to help measure the impact of changes in housing and stress reduction programs. In order to help shelters succeed at reducing stress and bolstering the emotional health of shelter animals, the Fear Free Shelter Program (https://fearfreeshelters.com) offers no‐cost, high‐quality, online course training and resources for shelter staff and volunteers on recognizing signs of fear, anxiety, stress and frustration in shelter animals and creating a positive emotional environment, including recommendations for Fear Free handling, housing, behavioral care, monitoring, and more.
2.7 Proper Housing
Housing design and its proper management can literally make or break the health of a population. Housing used for isolation, quarantine and other special needs should be appropriately separated at a distance away from the general population and designed for enhanced biosecurity and stress reduction to facilitate care and speed recovery. It is not enough for the design to only address an animal's physical needs (e.g. shelter, warmth); properly designed housing should also meet the behavioral needs of the animal while minimizing stress and other negative emotional states. Behavioral needs will vary depending upon such factors as life stage, personality, and prior socialization and experience. Regardless of the species in question, housing should always include a comfortable resting area and allow animals to engage in species‐typical behaviors while ensuring freedom from fear and distress. Both the structural and social environment are key considerations for housing arrangements. Further, the environment must provide opportunities for both physical and mental stimulation, which become increasingly important as the LOS increases. Therefore, shelters should maintain a variety of housing styles to meet the individual needs of different animals in the population. Managing housing arrangements for populations of varying species, ages, sexes, personality types, social experiences, and stress levels requires knowledge of normal species behavior and communication, including social behavior. Staff training in behavior and communication are crucial to success.
A sense of control over conditions is well recognized as one of the most critical needs for behavioral health (McMillan 2002). Thus, housing design must provide a variety of satisfying behavioral options. The design of short‐term housing should include provisions for housing individuals, litters or compatible pairs for intake evaluation and triage. Housing should be easy to clean and sanitize, well ventilated, and be safe for animals and caregivers. Even short‐term housing should provide for the minimal behavioral needs of animals, affording animals with sufficient space to stand and walk several steps, sit or lie down at full body length, and separate elimination, feeding, and resting areas. This is often best accomplished with double compartment housing, in which a door or portal separates the resting and feeding area from the area for elimination. This is important for both dogs and cats. Resting areas should include comfortable surfaces and, if needed, extra bedding that can be disinfected or disposed of. To provide a refuge, a secure hiding place (such as a box, crate, or cat den, or a visual barrier placed over a portion of the front of the enclosure) should be provided for cats and dogs. See Figure 2.1a and 2.1b.
2.7.1 Long‐Term Housing
The design of long‐term housing (i.e. for confinement in the shelter for more than two weeks) should provide space that is mentally and physically stimulating and preferably esthetically pleasing (an important consideration to facilitate adoption). Alternatives to traditional cage housing (such as large runs) should be provided; enriched single or group housing is indicated. Though not always easy to accomplish in busy shelters, at an absolute minimum, healthy cats that are cage housed should be allowed a daily opportunity to exercise and explore in a secure enriched setting that can be easily disinfected. Biosecurity measures must be adhered to when providing enrichment opportunities for cats with an infectious disease such as URI or dermatophytosis. In some situations, outdoor enclosures may also be suitable for cats. Benefits include ample exposure to natural light and mental stimulation. Galvanized wire chain link panels (including a top panel) or specially designed fencing for cat enclosures (e.g. Purrfect Fence, http://www.purrfectfence.com) may be used (Griffin 2006).
Likewise, dogs should be provided with regular daily out‐of‐kennel time for physical exercise and appropriate social interactions. Outdoor enclosures provide opportunities for fresh air and exercise, as well as mental and social stimulation. If outdoor play enclosures are not available, dogs should be walked outside at least twice a day by experienced staff or volunteers who can ensure the dogs will not escape, transmit disease, bite or fight with other dogs they may encounter.
Co‐housing affords animals with opportunities for healthy social contact with conspecifics, and when properly managed can help to meet their social needs, enhancing welfare. In fact, many animals can benefit from being housed with a compatible animal, provided there is sufficient space to distance themselves
