scandals’ online when my informants were caught up in controversies or attacked by haters, anti-fans or rival Influencers. Instead of only observing these events as they unfold, I was sometimes also asked for my expert opinion and friendship to assist my informants in crafting ‘crisis response’ messages. These were moments when, as an ethnographer, I had to decide and prioritize between wanting to ‘collect’ rich data, and desiring to be a good friend and person. Throughout the years of fieldwork, some informants and I ‘debrief’ and reflect on these incidents, which, while seemingly small and mundane, were perhaps some of the most meaningful parts of my research experience, even if the full accounts will never make it to print.
STOP & THINK
What are the challenges that anthropologists face when studying people online and offline?
Conclusion
Anthropology is defined by its research method: ethnographic fieldwork. This method allows the researcher to gain valuable information without disturbing and intruding on the privacy of the people being studied. The researcher participates in all daily activities of the community, observes the group or individuals, records their findings and then reflects on those findings. The body of data collected is often substantial and is used selectively in analysis and in writing up the results. Fieldwork data is usually supplemented by other data collected in libraries and museums. Nowadays fieldwork is used in many other disciplines outside anthropology and is recognized as a valuable way of gathering rich and valid data. In the world of technology, anthropology is adapting to new forms of media and plays an important part in studying cultures online and virtual worlds as well as using new technologies in processing gathered data.
End-of-chapter questions
Outline the history of research methods by earlier explorers, missionaries and colonists in the nineteenth century and demonstrate how the approach to qualitative research subsequently developed.
Highlight the key elements of participant observation and discuss the skills required by a participant observer.
Explain the differences between overt and covert participant observation and discuss and defend the approach you think is most appropriate in anthropological research.
Identify key elements that distinguish qualitative from quantitative research, and, in the process, suggest which of the above approaches would work best in ethnographic research, and why.
Digital ethnography is the same as traditional anthropological research. Discuss.
Key terms
assimilation The absorption of an individual or minority group of people into another society or group, achieved by learning and adopting the cultural traditions of the society in which assimilation occurs; it is also often hastened by intermarriage and by de-emphasizing cultural and or biological differences
covert observation When a study is carried out ‘under cover’: the researcher’s identity and purpose of research are concealed from the group
digital anthropology The anthropological study of relationship between humans and the digital era technology
digital ethnography This is an approach to ethnographic practice that accounts for the relationship between the digital, material and physical elements of human activities, experiences and environments
empirical Verifiable through the senses (sight, touch, smell, hearing, taste), either directly or through extensions (reliance on observable and quantifiable data)
fieldwork The first-hand observation of human societies
gatekeeper A person who controls access to a research site
informal (unstructured) interviews An unstructured question-and-answer session in which the informant is encouraged to follow his or her own train of thought, wherever it may lead
informant A person who provides information about his or her culture to the ethnographic fieldworker
interviewer bias When an interviewer’s opinions or approach to questioning direct the discussion, steering the conversation away from what the interviewee wants to talk about
participant observation When a researcher takes part in the everyday life of the group while observing it
reflexivity The process of reflection on the research process
social media ethnography Ethnography that engages with internet practices and content directly, but not exclusively
PERSONAL INVESTIGATION
Conduct a mini-fieldwork project on places of worship within your own religious or other community. Religion often guides human behaviour and regulates interactions between human beings and their environment. Because religion is a complex mix of behaviours, material items, beliefs and people, places of worship can be ideal settings for the study of the total integration of culture, settings in which you can bring your own knowledge and background into your observations.
In order to gain an idea of regular practices at the place of worship you have chosen, you should attend for at least three services and also conduct an interview with a religious leader. It is essential to ask consent of this leader before attending services and clearly explain your role as a student observer rather than as a potential member.
Guidelines for observation
Record the following information:
1 The physical layout and material culture of the service:If allowed, take photos of the place of worship and any rituals observed.
2 The human dimension of the service:What is the ethnicity of the people attending?Are there more male or more female participants? Are they young/old?Are there any majority or minority groups?Are people clustered in groups by age or sex?
3 The service itself:What kind of music is used, if any?Who is leading the ceremony?What is the time of day?What is the style of audience participation?
1 The following are some questions to ask the leader of the place of worship:What are his/her reasons for becoming a minister/imam/priest?What is her/his education and training for this position?What is her/his experience of being the leader of the particular place of worship?
Using your field data, write a descriptive narrative essay on both the place of worship and the community of which it was a part. Include some ideas of your methodology. How did you get the information you needed? How did you start making connections with people? How did you portray your research to them? Did you use questionnaires, open interviews, etc.? What sorts of questions did you ask?
Suggested further sources
Books and articles
Abidin, C. (2018) Internet
