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Table 2.1(B) Ultrasound-assisted heterogeneously acid catalyzed biodiesel synthesis case studies.
| Oil (source) | Catalyst | Reaction | Molar ratio (Methanol to oil) | Catalyst loading (wt% or w/w) | Reaction temperature (K) | Time (min) | Ultrasound frequency/power (kHz/W) | Yield (%) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mixed oil feedstock | Sulfonated Carbon | Transesterification | 12.8:1 | 8.18% | 336 | 60 | 35/35 | 93.7 | [9] |
| Erythrina mexicana oil | Cobalt (II) 3D MOF | Transesterification | 10 mL:1gm | 25 mg | 333 | 720 | 40 kHz | 80 | [62] |
| Pistacia khinjuk seed oil | Sulphated tin oxide impregnated with silicon dioxide | Transesterification | 13:1 | 3.5% | 338 | 50 | 20 kHz | 88 | [63] |
| Oleic acid | PTA@MIL–53 (Fe) (hetero–polyacid on Fe(III)–based MOF) | Esterification | 16:1 | 100 mg | 333 | 15 | 37/50 | 96 | [64] |
| Sunflower oil | Sono–sulfated zirconia on MCM–41 | Transesterification | 9:1 | 5% | 333 | 30 | 20/90 | 96.9 | [65] |
| Waste fish oil | Sulfonated activated carbon | Esterification | 14.85:1 | 11.4% | 328 | 60 | 20/296 | 56 | [66] |
| Waste cooking oil | Sulfonated carbon catalyst from cyclodextrin | Transesterification | 16:1 | 11.5% | 390 | 8.8 | 25 kHz | 90.8 | [67, 68] |
| Palm fatty acid distillate | Sulfonated cellulose | Transesterification | 6:1 | 3% | 333 | 180 | 20/120 | 81.2 | [69] |
| Waste cooking oil | Tri–potassium phosphate | Transesterification | 6:1 | 3% | 323 | 90 | 22/375 | 92 | [70] |
| Crude Jatropha oil | carbon–supported heteropoly acid | Transesterification | 20:1 | 4% | 323 | 60 | 20/400 | 87.33 | [71] |
| Crude Jatropha oil | Cesium doped heteropoly acid | Transesterification | 25:1 | 3% | 327 | 34 | 20/400 | 90.5 | [72] |
Table 2.1(C) Ultrasound-assisted immobilized enzyme catalysed biodiesel synthesis case studies.
| Oil (source) | Enzyme | Support | Molar ratio (alcohol to oil) | Enzyme loading (w/w) | Reaction temperature (K) | Time (min) | Ultrasonic frequency/power (kHz/W) | Yield (%) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mixed oil | Lipase from Thermomyces lanuginosus | Commercially immobilized | 7.64:1 | 3.55% | 309 | 120 | 35/35 |
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