political and social developments.
The visions of a just and free society
Although it may be asserted that, in the future, capitalism will be an unviable system for a growing part of the population, in both ecological and economic terms, that does not tell us anything about the potential alternatives. Karl Polanyi’s thoughts about a just and free society proceeded from the notion that humankind – as he firmly believed at the time – would never again embark on a path of radical economic liberalisation after the experience of dictatorship and war. Against this backdrop, he considered industrial society to be an adequate basis from which a just and free society could eventually emerge. As for the first point, we have by now been disabused: financial market capitalism has once again taken economic liberalisation to new extremes. Concerning the second point, the industrialisation of life in social and ecological terms has become a problem in its own right, one which is not rooted in the ‘market economy’ alone. This has triggered a critique of civilisation of a different sort, one that addresses both destructive and emancipatory potentials of technological developments: the sharing economy can create a culture of the commons and shared use or establish platforms as new monopolies. Knowledge can be accessible to all via Wikipedia or facilitate – through standardisation – the emergence of global educational corporations which expropriate and concentrate knowledge. Robots can make work easier, and yet technology allows for total surveillance.
This is precisely what makes Polanyi’s pluralist, socialist vision of ‘Freedom in a Complex Society’ (Polanyi 1944/2001, p. 257) so relevant when it comes to contemplating a post-capitalist society based on emancipation and solidarity. In contrast to Polanyi’s times, however, nowadays we look back at a history of (state-)socialism, which distorted and discredited the original socialist idea of equality, freedom, solidarity. Contemplating a reorganisation of society in an emancipatory sense also implies addressing the historical experience of state-socialist dictatorships and searching for paths towards a new society which combine the freedom of the individual with social justice and opportunities for everyone to develop and realise their full potential.
Karl Polanyi’s crucial contribution, which he elaborates on in the last pages of The Great Transformation and which is certainly worth rediscovering, consists of a passionate appeal against dogmatism and simplification. It is a plea for dialectics and pragmatism. The criticism of a misguided faith in the self-regulating forces of the market must not lead to a rejection of markets as such. The critique of excessive individualism inherent in liberal thought must not let us forget the importance of the right to non-conformity and the protection of minorities. At the same time, there is no way around the fact that a society can only be built based on ‘planning’, ‘regulation’, and ‘control’ (Polanyi 1944/2001, p. 265) and a state capable of acting, otherwise it is the law of the jungle that governs: digital platforms displace their competitors through tax and social dumping; cycling remains a niche for the environmentally conscious while flying continues to be subsidised. In short, without ‘planning’, ‘regulation’, and ‘control’, that ‘freedom in a complex society’ is simply not possible, at least not if it is to be more than the individual freedom of the privileged.
Why Polanyi ought to be considered the personality of the century
Karl Polanyi deserves to be assigned a central role in the 21st century because his thinking is helpful in the search for constructive, solidarity-based alternatives. Polanyi is, of course, not the only pioneering, unconventional thinker to look to in these times of massive change for a comprehensive critique of the system and a concrete diagnosis of the times. The aim is not to pit Polanyi against Marx, Weber, Adorno, Keynes, or many others. Thinking in unconventional ways means assuming distinct perspectives in order to avoid becoming disoriented in the diversity of current dynamics. That said, there are many good reasons for the renaissance of Polanyi: his work invites us to reconceive the relation between the economy and society. Polanyi helps us discern the dangers facing a society in which material self-interest is considered the only valid social interest: Is it worthwhile? Does it pay off? Can we afford this and that? Moreover, Polanyi helps us to once again embed such economic reflections in the greater social and ecological context. It is the only way of turning the social needs of the many into the main driver of the economy, instead of orientating it towards catering for the individual interests of the few.
And, finally, Polanyi also invites us – not least based on his own biography – to return to the beginnings of the 20th century and learn from history: from the struggle for democracy and women’s rights, for the welfare state and against war. The great victories (against fascism and in building international understanding) and gradual successes (the many small changes in legislation, changed routines and cultural givens such as increasing progress toward gender equality, the broad acceptance of homosexuality, the growing responsiveness to the needs of the disabled) may serve as a source of inspiration for confronting the increasingly powerful right-wing populists and authoritarian forces. Indeed, it might just all change for the better: ‘[…] creating more abundant freedom for all’ (Polanyi 1944/2001, p. 268) is possible. ‘Freedom for all’ remains the ultimate goal of concrete utopias.
References
Robert Boyer in the last part (“Karl Polanyi – Wirtschaft als Teil des menschlichen Kulturschaffens”, Engl.: “Karl Polanyi – The economy as a part of human cultural activity”) of the film by Ilan Ziv (“Der Kapitalismus” – “Capitalism”), which aired on the French/German public TV station Arte.
Polanyi, Karl (1944/2001): The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time. Boston: Beacon Press.
‘MANY GRAZE ON POLANYI’S PASTURE’
The works of Karl Polanyi in German- and English-language media over the past five years.
ARMIN THURNHER
Many texts, including those featuring in this volume, suggest that the financial crisis of 2008 placed Polanyi’s work back in the limelight. There is some truth to such a notion. Yet, how Polanyi’s renaissance came about is rather different in the German- and English-speaking worlds. While in the UK and the United States, the left actually debates Polanyi and important newspapers and magazines with a serious audience address and discuss the man and his work, in Germany and Austria there is some coverage in newspapers, whereas journals and magazines hardly ever mention him at all. Correspondingly, neither Der Spiegel nor magazines such as Profil, Weltwoche or Brand eins mentioned the name Karl Polanyi once over the past five years. There were two mentions in Die Zeit, but no substantial article on the subject. It is exclusively publications specialising in politics, like the Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik, that have featured lengthy pieces on Polanyi or ideas based on his work. Some of these were from the Anglo-Saxon world, authored, for example, by Robert Reich or Nancy Fraser, the latter of whom is discussed in more detail in this volume.
Polanyi’s magnum opus, The Great Transformation, appeared in 1944, and it took another 33 years before it was published in German. Only very few people outside of economic expert circles were familiar with the name Polanyi. If nothing else, at least that has changed completely. Today, he is frequently cited en passent, so to speak, as political scientist Ulrich Brand recently did in an interview with the Austrian paper Falter. ‘How far does degrowth have to go?’, was the question, to which Brand responded:
‘To say it with Karl Polanyi: we need to initiate the social-political and intellectual countermovement against a continuing ignorant consumption of natural resources, which are taken for granted, and an imperial lifestyle. That will allow for learning
