style="font-size:15px;"> Lapuschkin et al., «Unmasking Clever Hans Predictors.»
7
See the work of philosopher Val Plumwood on the dualisms of intelligence-stupid, emotional-rational, and master-slave. Plumwood, «Politics of Reason.»
8
Turing, «Computing Machinery and Intelligence.»
9
Von Neumann, The Computer and the Brain, 44. This approach was deeply critiqued by Dreyfus, What Computers Can’t Do.
10
See Weizenbaum, «On the Impact of the Computer on Society,» After his death, Minsky was implicated in serious allegations related to convicted pedophile and rapist Jeffrey Epstein. Minsky was one of several scientists who met with Epstein and visited his island retreat where underage girls were forced to have sex with members of Epstein’s coterie. As scholar Meredith Broussard observes, this was part of a broader culture of exclusion that became endemic in AI: «As wonderfully creative as Minsky and his cohort were, they also solidified the culture of tech as a billionaire boys’ club. Math, physics, and the other ‘hard’ sciences have never been hospitable to women and people of color; tech followed this lead.» See Broussard, Artificial Unintelligence, 174.
11
Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason, 202–3.
12
Greenberger, Management and the Computer of the Future, 315.
13
Dreyfus, Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence.
14
Dreyfus, What Computers Can’t Do.
15
Ullman, Life in Code, 136–37.
16
See, as one of many examples, Poggio et al., «Why and When Can Deep – but Not Shallow – Networks Avoid the Curse of Dimensionality.»
17
Quoted in Gill, Artificial Intelligence for Society, 3.
18
Russell and Norvig, Artificial Intelligence, 30.
19
Daston, «Cloud Physiognomy.»
20
Didi-Huberman, Atlas, 5.
21
Didi-Huberman, 11.
22
Franklin and Swenarchuk, Ursula Franklin Reader, Prelude.
23
For an account of the practices of data colonization, see «Colonized by Data»; and Mbembé, Critique of Black Reason.
24
Fei-Fei Li quoted in Gershgorn, «Data That Transformed AI Research.»
25
Russell and Norvig, Artificial Intelligence, 1.
26
Bledsoe quoted in McCorduck, Machines Who Think, 136.
27
Mattern, Code and Clay, Data and Dirt, xxxiv-xxxv.
28
Ananny and Crawford, «Seeing without Knowing.»
29
Any list will always be an inadequate account of all the people and communities who have inspired and informed this work. I’m particularly grateful to these research communities: FATE (Fairness, Accountability, Transparency and Ethics) and the Social Media Collective at Microsoft Research, the AI Now Institute at NYU, the Foundations of AI working group at the École Normale Supérieure, and the Richard von Weizsäcker Visiting Fellows at the Robert Bosch Academy in Berlin.
30
Saville, «Towards Humble Geographies.»
31
For more on crowdworkers, see Gray and Suri, Ghost Work; and Roberts, Behind the Screen.
32
Canales, Tenth of a Second.
33
Zuboff, Age of Surveillance Capitalism.
34
Cetina, Epistemic Cultures, 3.
35
«Emotion Detection and Recognition (EDR) Market Size.»
36
Nelson, Tu, and Hines, «Introduction,» 5.
37
Danowski and de Castro, Ends of the World.
38
Franklin, Real World of Technology, 5.
39
Brechin, Imperial San Francisco.
40
Brechin, 29.
41
Agricola quoted in Brechin, 25.
42
Quoted in Brechin, 50.
43
Brechin, 69.
