to the organism’s body itself, it is fundamental that descriptive and positional terms refer to the organism when it is in standard anatomical position.
Standard anatomical position is assumed when the body is standing erect, facing forward, feet slightly apart, with the arms resting at the sides – slightly rotated outward so that the palms face forward and the thumbs are pointed away from the body.
While studying anatomy, one should become familiar with some of the vocabulary used to describe various aspects of the human body. Any and all directional and descriptive terms are made with reference to the body in its standard anatomical position.
Anatomical directional terms can be used like the directions of a map to precisely communicate the positions of structures, abnormalities, and lesions of the body. This ensures a scientific method of communication that prevents incorrect and possibly life-threatening mistakes.Likewise, anatomical directional terms are also directed to cuts or sections of the body. Body planes, as they are also referred to, are a valuable way to explain and isolate distinctive views of the body.
Some of the most universally applied anatomical directional terms are listed below, followed by body planes and sections.
Superior – above
Inferior – below
Anterior/Ventral – front
Posterior/Dorsal – back
Medial – towards the middle/midline
Lateral – away from the middle/midline
Cephalad – toward the head
Caudal – toward the tail (bone)
Proximal – toward the trunk
Distal – away from the trunk
Superficial – towards the surface
Deep – towards internal structures
Ipsilateral – same side of the midline
Contralateral – opposite sides of the midline
Note: In humans, the terms “anterior” and “ventral”, as well as “posterior” and “dorsal” are interchangeable because human beings stand erect in anatomical position. Therefore, these terms become identical. Using directional terms such as “proximal” and “distal” is reserved for reference in describing the limbs.
Let’s take a look at some specific examples:
The head is superior to the heart.
The leg is inferior to the thigh.
The nose is anterior/ventral to the occipital bone.
The tibia is medial to the fibula.
The radius is lateral to the ulna.
The thorax is cephalad to the umbilicus.
The inguinal region is caudad to the umbilicus.
The elbow is proximal to the wrist.
The ankle is distal to the knee.
The skin is superficial to muscle tissue.
The bones are deep to muscle tissue.
The spleen and left lung are ipsilateral to each other.
The ears are contralateral to each other.
Body planes/sections
It is also important to become familiar with the different sections or planes of the body, as this will facilitate the study of anatomy. The first step is to imagine a series of horizontal and vertical lines passing through the body. These lines, called planes, divide the body according to their location. Three main types of planes should be noted:
Sagittal Plane – This is an imaginary vertical line that runs from the top of the body all the down to the bottom, cutting the body into two halves, left and right. A subtype of plane that often confuses people is the distinction between a sagittal plane and a mid-sagittal plane. The only difference is that a mid-sagittal plane or cut divides the body into two equal left and right halves, whereas a sagittal plane simply divides the body into any two-unequal left and right sides.
Frontal/Coronal Plane – This is an imaginary vertical line that runs down the epicenter of your body from one side to the other, splitting the body into a ventral (anterior) and dorsal (posterior) partition. (It helps to know and remember the location of the coronal suture in your skull, after which this plane was named.)
Transverse Plane – This is an imaginary horizontal line cutting through the middle of your body, separating it into an upper portion and lower portion. This plane is usually the easiest to imagine, and hence remember.
Anatomical landmarks: anterior (front) vs. posterior (rear)
Figure 1-19 Anterior/Posterior views.
Anterior landmarks
| Antebrachial –forearm | Antecubitalfossa –anterior elbow | Axillary –armpit | Brachial – upper arm |
| Buccal –cheek | Carpal –wrist | Cephalic –head | Cervical –neck |
| Coxal –hip | Cranium –skull | Crural –leg | Digit –finger |
| Facial –face | Femoral –thigh | Frontal –forehead | Inguinal –groin |
| Mammary –breast | Mental –chin | Metacarpal –hand | Nasal –nose |
| Oral –mouth | Orbital –eye | Otic –ear | Patella –knee |
| Pubic –pelvic | Tarsal –ankle | Umbilicus –navel |
Posterior landmarks
| Acromion – shoulder | Calcaneus – heel | Gluteus – buttocks | Lumbar – lower back |
| Occipital – back of head | Olecranon – elbow | Pedal – foot | Plantar – sole |
| Popliteal – back of knee | Sacral – between the hips | Vertebral – spinal column |
The abdomen and
