High-level or grassroots character of the sports exchanges,
Findings are supposed to enable the proposition of models describing typical ways of acting within sports diplomacy perceived this way.
Ping-Pong Diplomacy between the People’s Republic of China and the United States
Ping-pong diplomacy between the People’s Republic of China and the United States is one of the best-known cases of sports diplomacy. Communist China is one of the two Chinese states formed as a result of civil war. Republic of China (Taiwan) was recognized by Western countries, while communist countries established close relations with the PRC, which referred to the same ideology.1 However, after some time Sino-Soviet alliance began to fall apart. China cooperated with the nonaligned states, but opening to the West appeared to be the natural hence risky solution to escape from isolation. Improving relations with the United States was also crucial for China concerning its desire to join the United Nations and to initiate trade with the United States, and possibly to solve the problem with Taiwan favorably.2 It would also improve China’s strategic situation concerning the cooling of the relationship with the USSR.
The United States was also interested in rapprochement with China, particularly when Richard Nixon became the president. He believed America should reorient its China’s policy. Nixon believed that better relations with China might strengthen the US position concerning the USSR and wanted to be remembered as the president who began the dialogue with China.3 American goals included avoiding a potentially dangerous escalation of the Sino-Soviet conflict as well.4 Apparently, both sides were interested in rapprochement, but several obstacles were preventing it, starting with the ideological conflict. It blocked the possibility of establishing contacts through traditional diplomatic channels, although such attempts were also made, for example, via diplomatic representatives in Geneva or ambassadors to Poland.5 American relations with Taiwan where a US military base was located posed another difficulty. Because of hostility between representatives of both Chinese states, Americans had to act very carefully.
Given this circumstance, from the early 1970s efforts were made to arrange a secret high-level meeting between China and the United States.6 Both sides were also making goodwill gestures. In December 1970 Chinese People’s Daily published a picture of Mao Zedong and American journalist Edgar Snow on Tiananmen Square with a comment “The people of the world, including the American people, are our friends,”7 while Americans relaxed some restrictions concerning traveling to China and trade. These steps were commented on as the “diplomacy of smiles”8 and reveal the essence of sports diplomacy as an instrument of establishing diplomatic contacts. Because of various reasons, it was difficult for both countries to initiate open and transparent contacts. An extraordinary step was needed, and ping-pong diplomacy became an answer to this need.
An introduction to future ping-pong diplomacy took place during the table tennis world championships in Nagoya in April 1971. Communist China generally did not compete in international sport but retained membership in the International Table Tennis Federation. After relevant negotiations held by China’s prime minister Zhou Enlai, it was decided that China shall compete in the world championships.9 Before leaving, the Chinese team was instructed by Zhou to respect the principle “friendship first, competitions second.” The Chinese government issued instructions for the athletes on how to behave in contacts with Americans, for example, they were not allowed to greet them or talk with them first and were not permitted to exchange flags but could shake hands.10 The instructions might be surprising considering future developments and suggest that the invitation for American players was not planned.
During the championships, American player Glenn Cowan was given a ride by the Chinese team after being late for his team’s bus. He met with Chinese champion Zhuang Zedong who supposedly has proposed the organization of Chinese-American table tennis matches in China.11 Details on the form of the invitation remain unclear though. According to some authors, it was the Americans who strived to be invited.12 According to Stuart Murray, shortly after Cowan and Zedong met, American NGO National Committee on USA-China relations proposed the visit of Americans to China.13 Lack of precise information might have been part of the plan to maintain a low profile.
Officially, the American team was invited to tour China on April 6, 1971, after the head of Chinese delegation Song Zhong visited Americans in their hotel to ask how they would respond to an invitation to China. He also promised to cover all the costs of the exchange. The trip was approved by a specialist on China in the American embassy in Tokyo. Nixon immediately recommended issuing visas to journalists so that they could cover the tour.14 Even though the governmental engagement was explicit, the whole initiative had a grassroots level, at least from the American perspective, which is typical for this form of sports diplomacy.
The American team’s tour to China began on April 10. They visited Beijing, Shanghai, and Hangzhou and played two friendly matches.15 The team was received very enthusiastically and friendly. During a meeting in the Great Hall of the People, Zhou Enlai said that the American visit had “opened a new chapter in the history of relations between Chinese and American peoples,” which marked the culmination of the tour.16 It was symbolic, also because many Western diplomats to Beijing were not allowed to participate in such a meeting at the time.17 A few hours later Washington announced five new measures concerning China, including termination of the trade embargo, permitting trade in commodities nearly equivalent to those traded with the USSR, ending currency control related to China, and expediting visas for Chinese who wanted to visit the United States.18
From that time, political developments were happening very quickly. In 1971 US secretary of state Henry Kissinger made two visits to China. Soon China’s authorities run a campaign to explain to society the change in relations with the United States. The famous visit by Richard Nixon to China began on February 21, 1972. During his visit, the Shanghai communique, an informal strategic agreement between the two countries, was signed.19 Already in 1971, the PRC was admitted to United Nations replacing Taiwan. The political consequences and change in the shape of mutual relations were therefore remarkable.
Ping-pong diplomacy is usually recognized as a one-off event in 1971. However, one year later, the exchange was repeated. In spring 1972 Chinese table tennis national team visited the United States.20 Arrangements concerning the visit were made mostly on the nongovernmental level, with the minor engagement of the White House. Despite some difficulties, a series of friendly matches called “Friendship First” was held in the United States in April 1972.21 The most symbolical part of the tour—a game in the UN headquarters—took place on April 19.22 In the same year, the US basketball team visited China.23 Sports contacts were therefore developed alongside political rapprochement.
Events related to ping-pong diplomacy were recognized as a significant diplomatic success, and the majority of experts share the view that it was an essential step toward full normalization eight years later.24 As Zhou Enlai stated, “Never before in history has sport been used so effectively as a tool of international diplomacy.”25 The events led to an evident change in the political climate between the United States and the PRC. Formerly the only contacts were held through secret diplomacy. Table tennis world championships in Japan constituted a convenient opportunity that both sides used. It should not be forgotten though, that China employed sport in maintaining friendly relations with other states before 1971. Ping-pong diplomacy was extraordinary because it was held between initially hostile nations.
According to Stuart Murray and Geoffrey Pigman, ping-pong diplomacy was meant to test whether public opinion in both countries would have accepted the opening
