University Press, 1985).
2 Jarrod Tanny, City of Rogues and Schnorrers: Russia’s Jews and the Myth of Old Odessa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011), 30.
3 On this pogrom and more generally on the strained relationship between Jews and non-Jews in Odessa in the years preceding the pogrom, see Caroline Humphrey, “Odessa: Pogrom in a Cosmopolitan City,” Ab Imperio 4 (2010): 27–79.
4 See, for example, Firouzeh Mostashari, On the Religious Frontier: Tsarist Russia and Islam in the Caucasus (London: Tauris, 2006); Russian-Muslim Confrontation in the Caucasus: Alternative Visions of the Conflict between Imam Shamil and the Russians, 1830–1859, ed. Thomas Sanders, Ernest Tucker, and Gary Hamburg (London: Routledge Curzon, 2004).
5 For example, Timothy K. Blauvelt, “Military-Civil Administration and Islam in the North Caucasus, 1858–1883,” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 11, no. 2 (Spring 2010): 221–255.
6 The Pale of Settlement was the area where Ashkenazi Jews were specifically permitted to live in the Russian Empire. Non-Ashkenazi Mountain Jews, who were regarded by the Imperial authorities as native peoples (gortsy), were permitted to live in the North Caucasus region, where they generally did not face the restrictions applied to Ashkenazi Jews. However, after 1887 Mountain Jews also experienced a deterioration in their standing. Ekaterina Norkina, “The Origins of Anti-Jewish Policy in the Cossack Regions of the Russian Empire, Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century,” East European Jewish Affairs 43, no. 1 (2013): 62–76.
7 Mikhail Gontmakher, Evrei na donskoi zemle. Istoriia, fakty, biografiia (Rostov-na-Donu: RostIzdat, 1999), 20.
8 Ibid., 20–21.
9 Ibid., 22.
10 Ibid., 23.
11 Ibid., 25–28.
12 Ibid., 29–31.
13 Ibid., 41–42.
14 The Mountain Jews were a small ethnic group, originally made up of Persian Jews, but much influenced by the surrounding peoples of the Caucasus region. See, for example, Sasha S. Goluboff, “‘Are They Jews or Asians?’ A Cautionary Tale about Mountain Jewish Ethnography,” Slavic Review 63, no. 1 (2004), 113–140.
15 Sergei Markedonov, “Evrei v oblasti voiska Donskogo v kontse 19—nachale 20 veka,” in Trudy Vtoroi molodezhnoi konferentsii SNG po iudaike—“Tirosh” (Moscow: Sefer, 1998), http://www.jewish-heritage.org/jr2a18r.htm, accessed November 30, 2011.
16 Gontmakher, Evrei na donskoi zemle, 59–61.
17 Ibid., 20–21.
18 Ibid., 23.
19 Ibid., 38–39.
20 Ibid., 49.
21 Ibid., 55–56, 75–76.
22 The Black Hundreds (in Russian—Chernaia sotnia) was a vaguely defined Russian nationalist movement that started during the First Russian Revolution (1905–1907). It was vociferously anti-Semitic, and its members took an active part in pogroms against the Jews. On this movement, see Walter Laqueur, Black Hundred: The Rise of The Extreme Right in Russia (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1993).
23 Ibid., 109–111.
24 Andrew N. Koss, “War Within, War Without: Russian Refugee Rabbis during World War I,” AJS Review 34, no. 2 (2010): 239–240.
25 Kratkaia Evreiskaia Entsiklopediia (Jerusalem: Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1994), vol. 7, 402–404.
26 Markedonov, “Evrei v oblasti voiska Donskogo.”
27 It seems that from the Jewish perspective, the German occupation of the region in 1918 brought about calm and relief from pogroms or from fear of pogroms. On the military aspects of the German drive to the region, see Reinhard Nachtigal, “Krasnyj Desant: Das Gefecht an der Mius-Bucht. Ein unbeachtetes Kapitel der deutschen Besetzung Südrußlands 1918,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 53, no. 2 (2005): 221–246.
28 Oleg Budnitskii, “Evrei Rostova-na-Donu na perelome epokh (1917–1920),” in Rossiiskii sionizm: istoriia i kul′tura (Moscow: Evreiskoe agentstvo v Rossii, SEFER, Dom evreiskoi knigi, 2002). Cf. Oleg Budnitski, “The Jews in Rostov-on-Don in 1918–1919,” Jews and Jewish Topics in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe 3, no. 19 (1992): 16–29.
29 On one of the few examples of an open manifestation of anti-Jewish sentiments (directed against Mountain Jews), see Lyudmila Gatagova, “Caucasian Phobias and the Rise of Antisemitism in the North Caucasus in the 1920s,” The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review 36 (2009): 42–57.
30 “Na bor′bu s antisemitizmom,” Molot (Rostov-on-Don), December 14, 1928 and January 16, 1929. Quoted in: Gontmakher, Evrei na donskoi zemle, 167–168.
31 The emphasis here is on the word “relatively.” Soviet famine in the 1930s also struck at the North Caucasus, albeit arguably on a lower scale than elsewhere in the country. Brian J. Boeck, “Complicating the National Interpretation of the Famine: Reexamining the Case of Kuban,” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 30, no. 1/4 (2008): 31–48. Cf. Andrea Graziosi and Dominique Négrel, “‘Lettres de Kharkov’: La famine en Ukraine et dans le Caucase du Nord à travers les rapports des diplomates italiens, 1932–1934,” Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique 30, nos. 1–2 (Janvier–Juin 1989): 5–106.
32 Vsesoiuznaia perepis′ naseleniia 1939 goda. Osnovnye itogi (Moscow: Nauka, 1992), 24, 26. According to German sources, in Rostov there lived from 200,000 to 300,000 civilians. Andrej Angrick, Besatzungspolitik und Massenmord. Die Einsatzgruppen D in der südlichen Sowjetunion, 1941–1943 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2003), 561.
33 Evgenii Movshovich, “11 avgusta—60 let tragedii v Zmievskoi balke,” Shma (Rostov-na-Donu) 7, no. 36 (May 15–July 24, 2002): 3. Cf. Vladimir Kabuzan, Naselenie Severnogo Kavkaza v 19–20 vekakh: etnostatisticheskoe issledovanie (St. Petersburg: Izd-vo “Russko-Baltiiskii informatsionnyi tsentr BLITS,” 1996), 209.
34 Including Mountain Jews. Distribution of the Jewish Population of the USSR 1939, ed. Mordechai Altshuler (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, Center for the Research of East European Jewry, 1993), 13–15.
35 John Klier [as Dzhon Klir], “‘Kazaki i pogromy’: Chem otlichalis′ voennye pogromy,” in Mirovoi krizis 1914–1920 gg. i sud′ba vostochnoevropeiskogo evreistva, ed. Oleg Budnitskii (Moscow: ROSPEN, 2005), 55–56, 59–60.
36 Peter Kenez, Civil War in South Russia, 1919–1920. The Defeat of the Whites (Berkeley: University of California, 1977), 172. Cf. Iosif Shekhtman, Pogromy Dobrovol′cheskoi Armii na Ukraine: K istorii antisemitizma na Ukraine v 1919–1920 gg. (Berlin: Ostjüdisches Historisches Archiv, 1932), 31, 76.
37 Elena Khachemizova, Obshestvo i vlast′ v 30-e—40-e gody XX veka: Politika repressii (na materialakh Krasnodarskogo kraia), PhD diss., Maikop, Adygeiskii gosudarstvennyi universitet, 2004, 44–107.
38 E. A. Rees, Iron Lazar: A Political Biography of Lazar Kaganovich (London: Anthem Press: 2012), 110–111,
