in every area of human life, particularly in the seven fundamental areas of culture: history, ethics and spirituality or religion, social change organization, economic organization, political organization, creative production, and ethos (Karenga, 2010a).
Elements of the Surface of Culture
The surface structure of culture consists of material expressions that can be perceived by our external senses. It is similar to masculinity, the external expressions and manifestations of manhood. This section will cover Black masculine expressions of the surface structure of culture in the form of symbols, handwork, clothing, walking styles, facial expressions, dance styles, language, the dozens, music making, and heroes.
Symbols
Symbols are words, gestures, objects, or anything that carries meaning, usually best understood by those who share a culture (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Symbols are on the outermost layers or surface level of culture because they are subject to frequent change, and being copied, borrowed, or appropriated. Every day, people depend on symbols in the form of street signs and light colors to navigate the roads, while social media is filled with emoticons and memes that convey meaning in our daily communications; however, symbols in African American culture carry far more depth. Nobles (1986) assigns far greater meaning to symbols than is typical among cultural scholars. Nobles also cautions against the interpretation of symbols where signs are simply signifiers of objects. When interpreting the use of symbols among people of African descent, it is important to look into the use of symbols as representations of rational and/or spiritual meanings and other subjectivities.
Handwork
Black male handwork (hand movement), like handshaking, is a form of non-verbal behavior strongly associated with Black male non-verbal culture. Handwork can be highly political, like the Black fists defiantly raised in protest by 1968 Olympic medal winners Tommie Smith and John Carlos, or the Saint Louis Rams football players who, in 2014, raised their hands in solidarity with protesters challenging the police killing of Michael Brown, a young Black male. The Black fist has symbolized a great deal of meaning; during the Black Power movement in particular, it signaled Black consciousness. Black males have used handwork in unique cultural ways to express a range of meaning, including pride, identity, community, masculinity, greetings/farewells, approval, solidarity, etc. Ethnographic observations of male handshaking reveal a great deal about the ways they play out. Black male handwork stylings are distinct, but over time they are often absorbed into the mainstream and are practiced by many.
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African American organizations and social groups, from gangs to fraternities, have had and continue to create specialized handshakes (Majors & Billson, 1992). Some Black gangs engage in distinct types of stacking, creating symbols and letters to represent their affiliation (Sutherland, 2009). Research on sex differences in human touch behavior generally suggests that, due to socialization, females use touch for intimacy and friendship, while males use it for status and power. However, this is not true for Black males who also use handshakes in ways that place a great deal of emphasis on intimacy, brotherhood, and friendship. Many terms have been used by African Americans to refer to the handshake including giving dap, slapping five, giving skin, high fiving, and showing love (White, 2011).
Black male styles of handshaking have a long historical lineage, from the African continent to the present. During the turn of the century, when Jim Crow laws and lynching were at their worst, Black fraternal orders allowed Black male professionals to support one another, possibly in new or hostile territories. They made use of specialized handshakes to identify one another so they could get social and economic support while they were away from home (Kuyk, 1983). Like their predecessors, modern Black fraternity members continue to use their own secret handshakes, often involving a unique handshake or grip combined with a body embrace (Majors & Billson, 1992). Black male greetings in general (non-fraternity related) can involve handshakes and intense embraces. In greetings, Black males engage in more touch behavior, and for longer durations (measured in seconds), than is typical among males in the U.S. context (Andrews & Majors, 2004). Andrews and Majors (2004) explain one specific feature of Black male handshakes: the thumb grasp. The thumb grasp “involves the mutual encircling of thumbs, while hands are grasped together” (Andrews & Majors, 2004, p. 326). Many African American males perform these handshakes out of habit, without attaching any name to them. For instance, one of the more popular forms of handshaking is the three-point handshake, in which “two actors begin with the thumb grasp, and roll into a traditional handshake, and finally rolling into a tip of the finger clasp, where the fingers are bent at the knuckle and clasped or locked around the bent fingers of the other actor” (Andrews & Majors, 2004, p. 326). These shakes sometimes end with a snap sound created by the fingers pulling away from one another and the thumbs pressing against one another. Other times both actors maintain the hand grasp and pull one another into an embrace. Black South African males engage in a similar variation of the three-point shake and, similar to African American culture, it is in part an expression of communalist value (Sutherland, 2009). This handshake too will sometimes end with an accompanying gesture, such as a finger snap. In a different variation, some Black male athletes have been known to do an elbow bash, which may appear to be a high five, but instead, clinch their fist and crash forearms, locking at the bend of the elbow. In a non-handshake, LeBron James is known for sometimes celebrating by pushing both of his hands toward the floor, following by twice tapping his chest with the palm of his hand. New handshakes and variations of old ones are constantly being adopted.
Clothing
Clothes can simply represent style, but they can also be used to tell elaborate stories about culture and identity. African Americans have used clothing to symbolize attitudes, values, messages such as affiliation, pride, individuality, and overall identity (Andrews & Majors, 2004, p. 326). Zulu traditional dress for men includes a beaded belt tied over a goatskin apron in addition to other clothes for rituals and other special occasions (Davis et al., 2007). Masaai males of Kenya wear colorful, toga-like garments and sometimes carry spears as symbols of manhood. Swahili men and women believe that appearance can symbolize inner purity (Davis et al., 2007). From zoot suits to traditional African garments, African American men have developed unique ways of dressing to express and distinguish themselves (Franklin, 2004). During slavery, Black men used the clothes available to them to create their own styles. This was and is, in part, a way for Black men to express themselves on their own terms ←7 | 8→and enhance self-image all the while society attempts to make them invisible (Franklin, 2004; Majors & Billson, 1992). During the Black Power movement, African style print and designs were worn by African Americans to symbolize pride and identity.
Using clothing as symbols of masculinity is not something exclusive to males. Masculine Black lesbians often dress in ways similar to Black males, in addition to unique blended styles. For example, articles of clothing might include baggy pants, shirts, and Timberland boots (Lane-Steele, 2015). The fashion consciousness of Black men has set trends in men’s styles among manufacturers and designers for many years, as have Black women’s styles. Black male hip-hop entrepreneurs have created lucrative clothing lines such as Sean Jean, Roc-A-Wear, FUBU, Yeezy, and many others (White, 2011). Through hip-hop as a medium, they have been able to turn casual clothing items into exotic markers of cultural hipness (White, 2011). Black male clothing trendsetting has taken common items such as stocking caps (or doo-rags), bandanas, and plain white t-shirts to the point they have been commodified and transformed into mainstream symbols of style and masculinity. The hip-hop industry has garnered millions of dollars by transforming Black male clothing styles into designer apparel. Back male clothing styles are also associated with Black male bodies and how they move in their clothing. Based on experimental and observational research, Boykin and Cunningham (2002) identify one of the dimensions of African American culture: movement expressiveness. It is the interweaving of movement, rhythm, percussiveness, music, and dance with other social processes, including learning (Allen & Boykin, 1992; Boykin, 2000; Boykin & Cunningham, 2002). Kinesics or culturally
