while the bodies are being wrapped very tightly, bones are broken and over time as this process is repeated the bones become dust. Their dust is then combined with other family members. (p. 72)
Ultimately, men’s roles in these rituals have been avenues through which both humanity and manhood were expressed and achieved. Manhood in different African cultures was defined in diverse ways, and those definitions were standards the males were held to. These standards were situated in certain sets of values and beliefs that might be called worldviews, which will be discussed in the following chapter.
When Black males cannot see themselves, they see themselves, to various degrees, through the lenses of anti-Black maleness. When they cannot truly see themselves, this author argues, they are in custody. They do not belong to themselves and because of this form of incarceration, they are positioned to primarily serve the interests of others. However, when Black males are exposed to experiences that allow them to see themselves, they begin to engage in collective-self-determining behaviors. During enslavement, when a Black person engaged in the freedom seeking act of escape, they were often charged with the crimes of theft of self or taking custody of self. This crime was an existential threat to the well-being of those in positions of power and privilege, thus Whites during this time fought to prevent Black self-determination through brutal acts of terrorism. Consequently, today when Black males begin to see themselves and become self-determining and affirming in ways that advance themselves and their communities, they have engaged in theft of self, as truly they must.
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The chapters in this book provide the historical and cultural knowledge of Black men and boys’ lives in several key arenas of social life. This information is provided so that the current state of Black men and boys can be properly understood. Each chapter provides an analysis of the barriers that prevent Black males’ thought and behavior from being clearly understood. The multidimensionality of Black males’ experiences is explored. Every chapter includes suggestions for how available knowledge can be used to enhance and/or implement culturally relevant initiatives to enhance the state of Black men and the liberation of people of African descent.
Chapter 1 explores some critical questions related to Black males and culture. What is culture? What are the roots of Black male cultures? How is Black male culture unique? How are Black males affected by cultural oppression? What role does Black male culture play in Black liberation? Black male cultures are situated within their pre-colonial roots. Their unique features are explored, in addition to topics such as cultural revolution and cultural reclamation. Chapter 2 explores Black males’ unique relationships with racism and more specifically anti-Black-maleness in various arenas of life. Emphasis is placed on identifying how Black males have learned to be self-determining in a hostile environment, how they can successfully challenge anti-Black-maleness, and undergo culturally informed healing. Chapter 3 explores the various meanings of Black manhood and masculinities. The author describes the historical development of Black manhood and masculinities up to the present day. Emphasis is placed on how Black male gender identities develop in healthy and dysfunctional ways. Lastly, the chapter includes an analysis of manhood development programs. Chapter 4 explores Black male intimate relationships with friends and romantic partners. The chapter describes the contours of Black male sexual identities. Moreover, this chapter explores how webs of relationships can be constructed by Black families and communities to nurture healthy Black male relationships. Chapter 5 recounts the history of Black men in family life. Emphasis is placed on the experiences of Black fathers and sons. Several policy initiatives and community-based approaches to fatherhood enhancement are explored. Chapter 6 includes a description of Black males’ experiences in education from preK to higher education. Emphasis is placed on factors which play a role in Black males’ educational success and factors that represent barriers to success. Chapter 7 explores the history of Black men in politics. The political thought and actions of Black men are explained to construct ways they can be mobilized to advance Black communities. After recounting the history of Black male economics, Chapter 8 explores how Black males can advance economically in light of old and emerging market shifts. Chapter 9 explores the complex relationship between Black males and the law from their pre-colonial heritage and enslavement to the present. Emphasis is placed on ways to stop self-destructive behaviors among Black men and reversing systematic anti-Black-maleness in the criminal justice system. Chapter 10 describes the history of Black male contributions to maintaining health and well-being in Black communities. In addition to examining the health-related challenges that Black males face, this chapter explores how health conditions of Black men and boys can be enhanced in culturally responsive ways.
Collectively these chapters provide a full view of Black male experiences and self-determining action in the context of the larger African/Black community. Not all topics are covered in the same manner in this text. For example, spirituality does not have its own chapter. This is because spirituality is a fundamental part of the approach to this text and is a part of every chapter. There is also no chapter on sports and entertainment. However, sports and entertainment are covered in several chapters, including but not limited to the chapters on culture, education, and economics. Ultimately, this text provides a humanizing and liberatory approach to the lives of Black men and boys.
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The earth is blanked by a multilayered atmosphere. Each layer contains a unique mix of gaseous elements and compounds. Thousands of years ago, humans migrated from the African continent to different parts of the world, all with the same basic DNA structure, and meeting the same basic human challenges: giving birth, raising and protecting children, preparing food, loving, and dealing with death—to name a few (Davis et al., 2006). Yet, they developed unique ways of meeting those challenges and addressing those needs. The human species’ diverse efforts to address common needs has resulted in a vast tapestry of languages, spiritual systems, systems of governance, family structures, artistic products, rituals, and other cultural products. The resulting collage of cultures blankets the earth’s surface like the atmosphere. Davis et al. (2006) calls this the ethnosphere. The purpose of this chapter is to describe Black males’ relationships with the ethnosphere, exploring the meaning of culture and the ways in which it is often misunderstood. Both deep and surface levels of Black male culture will be explored as situated within the context of African American and pre-colonial African cultures.
Culture takes us beyond the generic notion of human nature, toward the unique peoples and people we are. There are no hard lines separating cultures; they clearly overlap due to people generally having the same basic needs and experiencing many of the same human drives and life experiences. But the way people express needs and assign meaning to life experiences varies by culture. Moreover, within cultures, individuals accept or reject those patterns of thought and behavior to varying degrees. Culture is a group’s natural basis for power; supporting culture is one way of supporting collective well-being (Nobles, 2006). It is a force that synthesizes commonalities while resolving differences (Nobles, 2006).
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Imposing Hard Science Principles on Culture
Culture represents tendencies and patterns of thought and behavior,
