role in forming stylistic identities and associations, enhanced by India's artistic energies to absorb varying influences.
Eastern Renaissance
In Kalinga, in modern-day Orissa (and further east in Bengal), there was a brief but vibrant spurt of building activity between AD 700 and 1250. A unique style of temple architecture flourished in Bhubaneshwar, the artistic and religious capital of the region, which eventually merged in the south with the Dravidian forms and spread its influence westward toward Rajasthan. Beyond Bhubaneshwar, Konarak and further east, the terracotta temples of Gaur and Vishnupur, Bengal, both add brief but glorious chapters to the history of Hindu architecture's development north of the Vindhya range.
The Advent of Islam
Between AD 1001 and 1025, Mahmud of Ghazni (a small town in Afghanistan) plundered India seventeen times. Later, in AD 1192, on the country's northern frontiers, Mohammad Ghauri, a Turkish warlord from the steppes of Central Asia, advanced deep into the region and overthrew the Rajput king Prithviraj Chauhan, marking the political entry of Islam in India. Islam itself had touched India in the 8th century AD through Sind on the western shores, but it was only in the 12th century AD that a dynasty was established that had a different religious identity to the prevailing faith. The Mamluk or Slave dynasty was the first of the Muslim dynasties to be established in India, where it maintained its strong identity of culture and religion.
The Parsvanatha Temple is one of the most magnificent of the temples of Khajuraho (11th century AD).
The Muslims introduced a new structural system, the arcuate system of construction, with its arch and dome, into the existing architectural vocabulary based on the trabeate system of beam, column and lintel. They also introduced a new form of decoration, based on geometry and calligraphy, into the already present iconographic imagery of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Over the next 700 years, art, architecture, music and literature saw a synthesis of traditions from all these religions, and the creation of a distinct style of aesthetics.
The Jama Masjid in Delhi is the largest mosque in India. It was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in 1656 and took six years to complete. The 28 meter square courtyard accommodates up to 20,000 people at prayer time. The central arch is framed by two minarets, behind which three black and white marble domes cover the prayer hall inside.
Even though it was in Delhi that Islam had established its Indian empire, the rest of India, including the Deccan, soon saw smaller provincial governments emerging. The uneasy truce between these Islamic kingdoms and the established Hindu kingdoms was broken occasionally. Architecturally, however, the cross influence of both cultures proved to be both invigorating as well as long-lasting.
The Great Mughals
In AD 1526, Babur, a young prince from Samarkand in Central Asia, defeated the Delhi sultan Ibrahim Lodi, and established the Mughal dynasty. It was Babur's grandson Akbar who finally brought a measure of political stability to the north.
The Mughal period is synonymous in the history of the subcontinent with some of the finest developments in art and architecture. Akbar's political policy of integrating disparate elements and forging alliances with Hindu Rajput kings, who had earlier been sworn enemies, was reflected in the aesthetic idiom that was created under the Mughals, with the fusion of Persian, Muslim and classical Hindu styles. The high point of Mughal architecture is, of course, the Taj Mahal, but each of the six great rulers of the dynasty can lay claim to memorable buildings and works of art.
The East India Company
At the turn of the 16th century, the entire sub-continent was divided into small warring fiefdoms, creating a certain amount of political instability. Vasco da Gama had already landed at Calicut in southern India in 1498, and tales of India's wealth had reached almost all parts of the world, including Europe. The Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the British all wanted to establish colonies in India, although their motives ranged from the religious to the economic. The trade and other links between various European powers and Mughal India led to the British establishing the East India Company, which eventually extended its commercial interests to play a more political role in the subcontinent. By 1857, the last Mughal emperor had been deposed by the British, who had brought most of India under the dynasty's domination. Finally, India was declared to be a colony of Imperial Britain.
Two hundred years of colonial rule created a drastic schism in architectural developments. The Western rulers brought new concepts of building which they imposed on the traditional vocabulary. Broadly classified as the Colonial style, this became a hybrid manifestation of new and old structural forms and decorative elements. Public institutions such as railway stations, post offices and administrative centers entered the realm of building. Domestic architecture was typified by the bungalow. For nearly 5,000 years, the Indian subcontinent had lured outsiders who came to conquer but stayed and merged their identities and became a part of India. The British, however, remained outsiders, and their economic and political exploitation of the country finally ended in 1947 when India became independent. India's struggle for political freedom was largely peaceful even though independence was gained after the traumatic partition of India and the creation of Pakistan.
The modern phase in Indian architecture is still very young. Though Western masters of the 20th century such as Le Corbusier and Louis Kahn have left their imprint on the urban landscape, there is a growing debate among a new generation of Indian architects on tradition versus modernity and what is most relevant to India in the 21st century.
Also known as the Constantia Palace, La Martiniere College in Lucknow is named after the French adventurer Claude Martin, who made Lucknow his home. In 1793, he was reputed to be the richest European living there. Constantia Palace was built in the style of a Gothic chateau, lavishly decorated with animals and mythological figures on the façade. Of the two cannons on the terrace, one was cast by Martin himself, along with the bronze bell. Martin died in 1840 and in his will stipulated that the building become a school for boys.
Early postcard of the Indian Museum in Calcutta, the largest and oldest museum in India. Designed by Walter Granville (1875), it exhibits the classic qualities of colonial architecture in its planning and façade details.
Residential Spaces
Traditional Indian households lived by the joint family system whereby the many occupants and complex interpersonal relationships necessitated clearly demarcated spaces. Public and private areas were separate, and women kept protected from the public gaze. The internal courtyard was the center, restricted to family members, with rooms opening out on either side, ensuring privacy to their inhabitants.
The stone façades of havelis in Rajasthan. Ornate jharokhas (balconies) with wooden shuttered openings project out onto the street. They are shaded by arched chhajjas (eaves).
North India: The Haveli
The haveli or mansion was the house of the rich, owned by either the nobility or by rich traders who attempted to imitate the lifestyle of royalty. Often built on narrow streets, the outer walls of larger havelis rose 3-4 stories high, casting shadows on their neighbors. Interiors thus remained cool. The narrow streets also acted as wind funnels, further
