the buildings.
The haveli was built on a high plinth, with steps leading up to the entrance. The first room, facing the street, was the baithak or public area. It signified the transition between the public space outside the house and the private or personal space within. This was a totally male domain into which women rarely entered. The baithak opened out into another room, beyond which, completely shielded from the gaze of strangers, was the central courtyard.
A pillared and covered corridor called the baramdah or verandah ran around the courtyard on all levels, leading into various rooms that formed the living quarters. Rooms on the upper floors also had canopied balconies called jharokhas looking down into the street. Shielded by carved stone latticework screens (jaalis), they allowed the inhabitants to look out without being seen, and also served to break the force of hot winds, allowing the interiors to be airy. There was usually a teh khana or basement, which was the cool retreat of the house and also the place where valuables were stored. Security was, in fact, a major determinant in the plan. Doors had low lintels and high thresholds, probably to ensure that an unwelcome person could not enter easily. The staircases, too, were twisted and narrow, with uncomfortably high risers.
Section of a typical haveli showing the hierarchy of private and public spaces and connecting passageways.
Kerala houses are constructed on fairly high stone plinths to prevent rainwater from entering. The pitched roots are also designed to drain off the rain. These usually have an open gable, the Malabar gable, to ensure air circulation, a necessity in the hot and humid climate of Kerala. The building above now houses the Napier Museum.
Ornamentation was a key feature of havelis. It also served as a major unifying element in the somewhat organic planning of the house. Owners of havelis vied with each other to create opulent mansions with painted interiors and ornate stone-and woodwork.
South India: The Kerala House
Homes in Kerala follow rigid systems of planning and orientation. The generic Kerala house is known as the nalukettu, nalu meaning "four" and kettu meaning "courtyard." The house thus comprises four blocks around a courtyard.
The courtyard, according to the Vaastu Shastra (see p. 30), is the point of equilibrium and harmony in the domestic building. It pro vides a focal point for the home. Based on this principle, the nalukettu is surrounded by a deep, covered verandah, whose inward-sloping roof rests on a pillar at each corner. Rooms are arranged around the verandah in a linear fashion. The roof is pitched and extends over the exterior walls to cover another verandah, usually in the front portion of the house.
Within this basic layout, the tarawad or house of the Hindu Nair community, follows rigid principles of orientation. A tarawad must face east, and the entrance is always flanked by the image of a demon to ward off evil spirits.
Within the tarawad, areas are designated according to direction. Thus, the cooking area, known as the vadakkina, must be in the north, while the southern end, known as the tekkina, is reserved for other domestic chores. The four blocks of the tarawad must be oriented in the cardinal directions around a central courtyard known as the nadumuttam.
The traditional Mappila or Muslim house of Kerala, has a central courtyard and is two-storied. The main entrance leads into a lobby or enclosed verandah, with a pair of windows opening through three arches giving onto the true verandah. The raised floor is paved with stone tile or colored lime plaster. Here stands a kinathara, a platform some 0.6 meters above floor level-a combined prayer area and sitting space. The rooms become plainer and more functional as one passes toward the women's quarter at the back, the most private part of the house. From one side of the semi-private lobby, stairs ascend to the finest room, the mullapuram.
The interior courtyard of a nalukettu. The courtyard is a transitional space between the public and private realms. Extended roots provide much needed shade in the hot and rainy seasons.
Vernacular Architecture
India's rich diversity has given shape to an equally rich vocabulary of vernacular architecture. Just as political and historic events were major factors in shaping monumental buildings in India in the past, so geography, social customs, local materials and, above all, the climate have been important influences on the forms of personal living spaces.
Interior of a village hut revealing clay relief work and pieces of mirror used for decoration. A further decorative element is often a quilted wall hanging.
Vernacular architecture evolved in an organic manner using local craft skills. It can broadly be divided into two distinct categories on the basis of the construction material used. The kachcha building is one that is made from short-lived natural materials such as mud, grass, bamboo, thatch and sticks and its form is dictated by the practical limitations of the material. Structures made with these materials have a short life and require constant upkeep and replenishment, not only in hostile weather conditions but throughout the year. They have the advantage, however, of being cheap. The pukka structure is one made from stone, burnt brick with plaster, seasoned timber, clay tiles or any other material that is resistant to wear and tear, and does not need constant repair and replenishment. Such structures, while being stronger, are much more expensive to build. As villagers' earnings increase, vernacular building, mainly confined to rural locations, combines these two types to create the semi-pukka structure. The dream of every villager is to finally own a pukka home although the kachcha structure has its own beauty, derived less from decoration (which is common due to religion or superstition) and more from its pure, practical shapes.
The villagers of Banni in the Kutch peninsula of Gujarat build circular houses of mud. A conical roof frame is filled in with thatch tightly tied around it. There are usually no windows. As families increase, new homes are built, eventually clustering around a common open space or internal courtyard. Decoration is an intrinsic part of the Banni house and includes mud relief, paint and embedded colored glass.
Diverse Materials
In the hills, the walls of houses are made of random rubble or ashlar, using bits of flint or stone, packed with mud mortar. A variation consists of a timber frame and bonding, with the space between columns filled with random rubble in mud mortar till the sill level and then with finer stonework. Wooden beams and rafters support roofs made of locally available slate tiles which are sloping, to drain off rain or snow.
In contrast, the roofs of houses in the plains are flat, allowing access to the terrace, used for sleeping in the hot summer. They are made of stone slabs supported on a metal framework. Walls are made of either mud or sun-baked brick, and plastered on the inside and outside with mud mixed with hay, chaff and cowdung, and sometimes whitewashed with lime (also considered a disinfectant).
Bamboo, flexible but extremely resilient, is used widely as material for walls, scaffolding, platforms and floors in the northeastern region and in the eastern states of Bengal and Orissa. Thatch from various plants-coconut, paddy, elephant grass-is widely used all over the country as roofing material. In the south, clay tiles are the most common
