less impeded by conscious limits. These ideas were developed by Lieh-tzu (see Chapter 4) and can be put to use to help foster self-discovery (see Chapter 17).
FINAL YEARS
When Chuang-tzu was old and knew he was soon going to die, his disciples offered to give him a large, impressive funeral to show their great respect and love for him. Chuang-tzu protested and said, “I shall have heaven and earth for my coffin, the sun and moon for my two round symbols of jade, and the stars and constellations as my jewels. Isn’t that more than anyone could possibly want?”
The disciples responded, “But we are afraid that the crows will eat you, Master.”
Chuang-tzu smiled at them benevolently and said, “Above, the crows will eat me. Below, the moles and ants will eat me. To give to these and take from those would only show your one-sidedness. All are equal under the Tao.” These were the last words of Chuang-tzu, a man who wholeheartedly devoted his entire life to the Taoist Way.
CHAPTER 4
Lieh-tzu and Yang Chu:
Traveling the Path
The Master Lieh-tzu said:“The virtue of Heaven and Earth, the powers of the Sage, and the uses of the myriad things in Creation, are not perfect in every direction. It is Heaven’s function to produce life and to spread a canopy over it. It is Earth’s function to form material bodies and to support them. It is the Sage’s function to teach others and to influence them for good.”
—Giles 1959, 19
Lieh-tzu was a Taoist whose writings expressed the fundamentals of Taoism as a guide to action and for inspiration. The Book of Lieh-tzu helped add to the foundation of classical Taoist literature that breathes life into Taoist philosophy. Some of the stories in the Book of Lieh-tzu overlap with Chuangtzu’s accounts. These stories are part of Taoism’s traditional teachings. Lieh-tzu reinterpreted other Chinese philosophies in Taoist terms, finding principles of the Tao in all things, unifying later thinkers with the Taoists.
Lieh-tzu’s given name was Lieh Yu-K’ou (or K’an). He lived in the state of Cheng, and eventually moved to Wei. His teacher was Hu-tzu (Hu Ch’iu Lin). Lieh-tzu was referred to by Mencius, Chuang-tzu and others, showing that he was well-known around the third century B.C.
Lieh-tzu’s authenticity has been disputed at different times through history, but many modern scholars believe he did exist. It is uncertain whether Lieh-tzu personally authored the Book of Lieh-tzu. In keeping with early Chinese tradition, his writings were probably gathered later by his disciples. The book that is ascribed to Lieh-tzu is likely a compilation from more than one author rendering Lieh-tzu’s thoughts. Thus, the ideas were from an early historical period, probably around 398 B.C., but were compiled later.
As further support for the theory that Lieh-tzu’s book may have been written later, the work makes peace and comes to terms with other theories. Confucius is treated respectfully as is Mo-tzu, embraced as expressing Tao. The I Ching is also reinterpreted within Taoism’s concepts. This trend toward unification developed even further, and by the time of the Neo-Taoists (A.D. 220–420), Confucius was lauded as the greatest of all sages. The Book of Lieh-tzu helped bridge the gap between Taoism and other philosophies.
LIEH -TZU ’S IDEAS
Like Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu, Lieh-tzu believed in the intuitive attunement to Tao—wordless, still, calm, unrestrained, simple. He encouraged people to trust nature and find balance, both within and without. This lifestyle leads to the life of Tao—uninhibited, creative, and free.
Like Chuang-tzu, Lieh-tzu believed that everything that is created flows in a cycle, from birth and growth to death and decay. The natural cycles are inevitable. “Going forth and returning, its successions are endless” (Lieh-tzu, in Graham 1990, 18).
EFFORT AND DESTINY
We act, and the fruits
Of our actions
Ripen, to
Become, to be
Borne on winds of destiny
—C. Alexander Simpkins
Two sets of forces are always acting upon our lives: human effort and destiny. Our own efforts bring about many things—professional development, mastery of a skill. Destiny, however, the more powerful force, can strike at any point to alter our path. The sage knows that it is futile to fight against destiny. Lieh-tzu advised his readers to ally themselves with destiny. Then they will live in tune with Tao and find themselves naturally developing their destiny to its fullest potential.
Life Is but a Dream
Things come into being from Tao, then differentiate into various combinations of yin and yang. One manifestation of yin and yang is between reality and illusion. Light always produces shadow. Sound produces echo. We are always in a relationship between concrete reality and the illusory, mystical realm of shadows, echoes, and dreams. Lieh-tzu explains through many stories that Chuang-tzu’s question—Am I a man dreaming I am a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming I am a man—should be explored.
Lieh-tzu tells a story about a poor servant who was overworked by his master. Every night the servant fell into an exhausted sleep and dreamed that he was lord over a vast kingdom with all the wealth and leisure he desired. Despite his hard life, the servant was happy. When asked how he could possibly find joy in such an unpleasant life, he answered, “Even though my waking hours are toil and discomfort, I spend the sleeping half of my life in abundant joy!”
Meanwhile, the master of the household passed his waking hours plagued by worries about his household and the distribution of his wealth. At night he, too, fell into an exhausted sleep, but he dreamed he was a slave, driven to toil at hard labor. A friend advised him that his negative dreams were destiny’s balancing for his cruel treatment of his servant. Recognizing the truth in these words, the master lightened his servant’s load and eased his personal worries. His dreams and waking hours became more comfortable and fulfilling.
Taoist sages often guided people toward more fulfilling and healthier lives through dreams and illusion. Lieh-tzu told a story of how the Yellow Emperor became great. This mythical emperor was believed to have reigned wisely over China thousands of years before Christ. According to the story, his empire was not always happy and prosperous. For many years the kingdom experienced difficulties, and no matter what he did, nothing improved. One night he dreamt that he traveled to a particular kingdom that functioned perfectly without a leader. The Yellow Emperor realized when he woke up that he needed to alter his ruling methods. He stopped interfering and fostered his people’s development. From then on, his kingdom thrived.
The Taoist sages were equally comfortable in the dream state as in the waking state. In traditional legends, they gained the freedom to perform impossible feats, such as walking through walls and flying through the air, by embracing and identifying with the magical, illusory essence. Many of the miraculous actions that were attributed to Taoist immortals can be understood by accepting the importance of the unconscious, dreaming mind.
YANG CHU
Yang Chu is another important early Taoist sage. Yang Chu’s values and concepts are referred to consistently by other philosophers. Some scholars believe he lived early, others place him later. Only a few fragmentary references remain, unlike
