in a certain way. Skinner believed the best way to understand behaviour is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning, as opposed to Pavlov’s classical conditioning.
Positive reinforcement or rewards can include verbal feedback such as That’s great, you’ve produced that document without any errors or You’re certainly getting on well with that task through to more tangible rewards such as a certificate at the end of the programme, or a promotion or a pay rise.
Cognitivism theory
Cognitivism is about people constructing their own understanding and knowledge by experiencing something and reflecting on it. Learning is, therefore, an active process of personal interpretation. There are many cognitive theorists, the most well known being Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner.
Jean Piaget (1959) believed that people construct knowledge rather than receive it. He believed that children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based. This experience and knowledge is then influenced by their emotional, biological and mental stages of development. Before Piaget’s work, there was a common assumption that children are less competent thinkers than adults. Although Piaget’s studies were concerned with children, they showed that young children and adults also think differently.
According to Piaget, there are four stages of development in children:
• Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) learning takes place by touching and feeling, and knowing an object exists even if it can’t be seen
• Preoperational (2–7 years) learning continues by thinking about things symbolically, with the ability to arrange objects logically
• Concrete operational (7–11 years) learning takes place by thinking about things rather than trying them out, i.e. the ability to think logically
• Formal operational (11 years and above) learning continues into adulthood by thinking in an abstract way, and by logically testing things out.
The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1962) believed that the development of language and thought go together. He argued that knowledge and thought are constructed through social interaction which is guided by adults. The origin of reasoning is, therefore, more to do with the ability to communicate with others, than with an interaction with the material world. Unlike Piaget’s belief that children’s development must precede their learning, Vygotsky argued that culture and social learning tends to precede development. He believed that the environment within which children grew up influenced how they thought, and that learning takes place in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), as in Figure 2.8. This is the area between independent problem solving (actual development) and guidance from others (potential development). Effective teaching should take place within this zone, where cognitive growth occurs.
Figure 2.8 Zone of Proximal Development
Jerome Bruner (1960) argued that the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but to facilitate thinking and problem-solving skills. These skills should be transferable to a range of situations. He believed that behaviour modification was a result of discovery learning, rather than being told something. For example, giving the learner the information they need to solve a problem, but not organising it for them. Learners should be active and construct their own knowledge. They should also build on this over time, known as scaffolding.
Example
Bob had a new group of learners taking a psychology course. He wanted to introduce them to various theories but did not want to confuse them. He asked them to research four theories and to write a paragraph about each in a simplified way. Once done, the learners discussed their findings among each other. During the next session, the learners researched two more and compared and contrasted them against the original four. This way, the learners were discovering things for themselves and building upon their knowledge. Bob is, therefore, facilitating what they are doing, rather than teaching them.
Humanism theory
The humanism theory emphasises the value of human beings and places the onus of learning away from the teacher onto the learner. Learning is, therefore, based on a natural curiosity and the desire for personal growth and development. Carl Rogers (1959) and others developed the theory of facilitative learning based on a belief that people have a natural human eagerness to learn and that learning involves changing your own concept of yourself. This theory suggests that learning will take place if the person delivering it acts as a facilitator. The facilitator should establish an atmosphere in which their learners feel comfortable, are able to discuss new ideas and learn by their mistakes, as long as they are not threatened by external factors.
Example
Vicky is due to teach an evening class in digital photography for beginners. The course does not lead to a qualification; therefore, she has planned to deliver what she thinks is relevant, based on the last time she taught it. However, she remembered being told by an observer of her session last term that she should consider the needs of her learners more. Therefore, at the first session, she decided to encourage her learners to tell her what their expectations of the course would be. This will enable her to facilitate her sessions to meet these. It will also ensure her learners feel included, are comfortable to discuss topics and, as a result, learning will take place as it is relevant to their expectations.
Pragmatism theory
Pragmatists consider thought a tool for prediction, problem solving and actions. It’s about dealing with a problem in a sensible way, rather than following fixed ideas.
John Dewey (1938) believed that behaviour modification takes place when the person relates their behaviour to their experiences. He focused on the pragmatic method of inquiry as an ongoing, self-correcting, and social process. He believed problems could be solved through the application of inquiry and experience, rather than being taught.
Activity
Research other pragmatist theorists and compare and contrast them to those of behaviourism, cognitivism and humanism. Do you agree or disagree with any of the theorists? If so, why? You might like to discuss your responses with a colleague or friend.
Pedagogy and andragogy
Malcom Knowles (1975) brought the concept of pedagogy and andragogy to the fore in education. The pedagogical approach places the responsibility for making decisions about the learning process upon the teacher. They may decide to teach the same material in the same order at the same time to all learners. This doesn’t allow any flexibility for a learner who may miss a session or is learning more slowly or quickly than others. Pedagogy often relates to formal teaching methods. However, it is possible to teach in a formal manner, yet still involve the learners throughout a session to help make the learning process more engaging.
If your sessions are mainly pedagogical, try to include your learners by asking individual questions to check their understanding. You could also ask pairs of learners to talk about a topic and then discuss it as a whole group. Your subject should never bore your learners; you will need to inspire them to maintain their motivation and interest. Learners will only be bored if the session is delivered
