at Makkah, which they had been forced to leave behind. In addition, this blockade made life difficult for the Quraysh.
b. Secondly, the Quraysh’s prestige among the inhabitants of Arabia at large, especially among the Bedouin tribes, was severely damaged. Some tribes who were not particularly friendly with the Quraysh, for example, Khuzāʿah who had long-standing feuds with the Quraysh, rejoiced at the humiliation that these expeditions had inflicted on the Quraysh, and began to ponder the possibility of allying with the emerging power of the Muslim community in Madīnah.
c. Thirdly, these expeditions achieved a strategic aim for the Prophet (peace be upon him), namely provoking and inciting the Quraysh to the battlefield, where their political, religious and moral authority in Arabia might once and for all be tested and defeated. Whereas the Quraysh was quite oblivious to such considerations and totally ill-informed about the growing power and preparedness of the Prophet and his camp, the Prophet (peace be upon him) had the most up-to-date information about the whereabouts of the Quraysh and their commercial caravans. The superb network of informants and intelligence at the disposal of the Prophet (peace be upon him), can be inferred from the way he masterminded the expedition of Ibn Jaḥsh, in particular, its timing, its secrecy, the location to which it was directed, and the sense of danger and anticipation associated with it.
d. Fourthly, these expeditions helped to train Muslims for combat fitness and war-readiness that would be needed in the inevitable battles ahead. More importantly, the prestige of the Quraysh and their reputation for invulnerability, were thoroughly undermined, so that the Muslims no longer feared military confrontation with the Quraysh.
e. Finally, the Nakhlah expedition brought into the hands of Muhājirīn a considerable amount of money, food provisions and maybe some armaments, all of which they were in dire need, since they had left their wealth in Makkah when forced to migrate. Those four expeditions were not the only expeditions against the Quraysh, but they were the only ones before Badr.2
5. EXPEDITIONS LED BY THE PROPHET IN PERSON
The Prophet (peace be upon him) is said to have led in person at least two major expeditions in those early days of Islam in Madīnah.
a. The Expedition of Waddān: This was directed chiefly at the Bedouins of Banū Ḍamrah, who as a result of this expedition were duly impressed by the personality of the Prophet (peace be upon him), and by his political and military power. They decided to become the allies of the Prophet (peace be upon him), concluded a Muwādaʿah (peace treaty) with him, and the Muslims returned to Madīnah, without encountering any hardship.
b. The Expedition of al–ʿAshīrah: Like that of Waddān, this expedition was directed chiefly at the Bedouins, though both expeditions had implications for the Quraysh, and it too ended in the conclusion of a Muwādaʿah with the Bedouin tribe of Banū Mudlij, thus, it is safe to infer that the primary motive of the expeditions, led by the Prophet (peace be upon him) in person, was not military, but political; hence the need for his presence as head of state. The presence of the tribal head or shaykh was required by the custom of the Bedouins, in order to dignify and secure inter-tribal agreements. For them, the Prophet (peace be upon him) was the head of the Muslim tribe, and therefore it was necessary that he be present for treaties to be concluded. The Prophet (peace be upon him) attached considerable importance to the matter of securing alliances with any power that could help defend the Muslims against their enemies. At no stage of his mission, was the Prophet (peace be upon him) without liable allies: in Makkah, it will be recalled, he was first allied to the Banū Hāshim and Banū ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, led by his own uncle Abū Ṭālib. When Abū Ṭālib passed away, the Prophet (peace be upon him) became temporarily allied with al-Muṭ‘im ibn ʿUdayy, a non-Muslim, but a man of considerable courage and integrity, with a large and effective tribal following. Then, before the hijrah, the Prophet (peace be upon him) took the Pledges of the Two ʿAqabas. Very soon after he settled in Madīnah, he concluded the momentous Ṣaḥīfah Pact between the Anṣārs, the Muhājirīn and the Jewish tribes of Madīnah.
c. The Jewish tribes of Madīnah: When war with the Quraysh became inevitable, the Prophet (peace be upon him) actively sought new allies among the powerful tribes of the Bedouins around Madīnah. To this end, by means of the expeditions mentioned and other methods, further alliances were secured with Khuzāʿah, Banū Ḍamrah and Banū Mudlij. Over time, the numbers of the Prophet’s followers were to increase tremendously. Thus it is clear that the concluding of alliances was a major element of his diplomatic policy as well as being a powerful instrument of his daʿwah. The Prophet (peace be upon him) was keenly aware of how and where political power lay in Arabia. He had a clear vision of how and why it should become a unified, unitary power. Within his unwavering commitment to the cause of Islam, and to the ennobling of his followers through Islam, he handled political issues with extraordinary skill and acumen.
5.1 Results of the Expeditions led by the Prophet
a. By going out to meet with the tribal chiefs, the Prophet (peace be upon him) projected himself as the political and military leader. An Arabs’ chief had to make public appearances, meet frequently with his counterparts, make his person felt and his view widely known. To be able to take a public role, and to sit in public council, was considered by the Arabs of the time as an indication of good lineage and excellent manners. However, Muḥammad (peace be upon him) was not just a tribal chief or a mere statesman, he was a Prophet and the Messenger of God. His mission was to call the people to the service, and worship of the One, True God, Allah. It is his claim to Prophethood that was a reason for the Arabs around Madīnah to be drawn to him, to take a glance of him and assess his person at first hand. Many of them were instantly won over by his noble looks. Many went around affirming: ‘I have seen Muḥammad, and by God, his face is decidedly not the face of a liar or an impostor,’ they said.
b. The Bedouins were very appreciative of power and might. They would only respect and fear a powerful chief; they would not respect a weak or meek chief. But when they saw the great love and esteem the Prophet (peace be upon him) enjoyed among his followers, they were duly impressed, and only desired to be allied with him.
c. Those who did not choose to ally themselves with the Prophet (peace be upon him) were, nonetheless, persuaded that they should not choose to make him an enemy. We can be sure that the Prophet (peace be upon him) intended to deter those tough and war-like Bedouins accustomed to raiding and plunder as a way of life.
d. Most particularly, the Prophet (peace be upon him) aimed to secure alliances with or, failing that, the neutrality of those Bedouin tribes who lived and roamed in the area that lay between the Muslims and the Quraysh. This policy, implemented through the campaigns and expeditions led by the Prophet (peace be upon him) in person, and those led by his commanders, was an essential preparation for the impending war with the Quraysh.
e. Last but not least, these expeditions were a very powerful tool for the dissemination of information about the new state and authority of Madīnah, about its leading figures, about the nature and high purpose of its mission and its institutions. As news travels fast in the desert by word of mouth, Bedouins tribes, far and wide, came to hear about the Prophet’s marches. At the very best, they began to fear and respect him, for that they were not to raid the Muslims or to ally with the Quraysh against Muslims. In this way, the image and prestige of the Quraysh was further tarnished, just as the star of the nascent Islamic society shone ever more brightly.
6. OTHER EXPEDITIONS
There were minor expeditions, but of an inconclusive nature and therefore not meriting very detailed study in the present context. Two of these minor expeditions were led by the Prophet (peace be upon him) himself. In the expedition of Bawāt, he led a contingent of two hundred Anṣārs as well as Muhājirīn, and tried, unsuccessfully, to intercept
