good saw the distancing of the state from any role in the definition of Islam. Islam stands defined by the ijmāʿ of the ummah in conformity with the Qur’ān and the Sunnah. That which has been unhealthy ensured the alienation of a majority of the ʿulamā’ from philosophy and science. This has had the effect of driving them towards greater conservatism, as will become clear with the progress of this discussion both in this Chapter as well as in Chapter 6.
In spite of the use of force, the progress of rational debate on the subject continued between the rationalists and the conservatives. Consequently, the extreme rationalists gradually started to lose ground on the rational front. Their questionable views could not stand the rational onslaught from a new School, now generally known as the Ashʿarite. It provided a logical and convincing defence of Islamic beliefs and practices. The leaders of this School were Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī (d. 332/943) in Iraq and Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī (d. 333/945) in Central Asia, followed by a number of other stalwarts like al-Bāqillānī (d. 403/1012), al-Juwaynī (d. 478/1085), and al-Qushayrī (d. 465/ 1072). All were extremely well-versed in religious sciences as well as in ʿIlm al-Kalām and philosophy. However, they were generally conservative, although to different degrees, al-Māturīdī being significantly less conservative than al-Ashʿarī.20
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