transition of leadership was achieved. The pivotal role played by Umar in this first major challenge faced by the early Muslims soon after the Prophet’s death was a testament to his clear vision, organisational ability and greatness, even if the majority of Islamic historians have failed to appreciate the importance of the role played by Umar at this critical juncture in Islamic history. During the two years and three months of Caliph Abu Bakr’s reign, Umar played the indispensable role of being an advisor, strategist and close confidant to the latter. After the Prophet, Abu Bakr was clearly the most insightful Muslim, and he knew Umar very well and trusted him more than anyone else. Lying on his deathbed, Abu Bakr called all the leading figures of the early Muslim community to a consultative (shura) meeting. He told them he wished to nominate Umar as his successor. No one present at the meeting raised any objection against Abu Bakr’s proposal. Umar was a dominant figure among the companions of the Prophet. He was well known for his sacrifices for Islam, and everyone admired his sense of justice. In the circumstances, Abu Bakr felt he was the best person to lead the Muslim community. History bears testimony to the quality of Abu Bakr’s wisdom and choice.
In 634, at the age of fifty-three, Umar assumed the leadership of the early Islamic State and ruled for just over a decade. During this period, Umar was able to achieve what others failed to achieve in a lifetime. With Umar in charge at Madinah, Muslims burst out of Arabia and overwhelmed the mighty Persian and Holy Roman Empires like a thunderbolt from heaven. In 638, the Muslim army conquered Jerusalem and the great Caliph himself went there to sign the peace treaty with the people of that historic city. As he approached Jerusalem, the people of the city could not believe what they were witnessing, for one of the great rulers of the time was proceeding into their city on foot, while his aide was riding the camel. When the aide offered to forgo his turn to ride the camel in favour of the Caliph, the latter refused the offer saying, “The honour of Islam is enough for us.” When the time for prayer arrived, the Bishop of Jerusalem invited Caliph Umar to offer his prayer inside the Cathedral, but he politely refused. He did not want to give anyone an excuse for turning the Cathedral into a mosque in the future, he told an astounded Bishop. Clearly taken aback by Umar’s grace, humility and tolerance, the Bishop offered him space outside the Cathedral where Umar led the faithful in prayers.
During the ten incredible years of his reign, he never forgot Caliph Abu Bakr’s last words of advice to him: ‘O Umar! Always fear God. An optional deed is not accepted unless the obligatory deed is done. The weight of your goodness would be heavy on the Day of Judgement if you follow the right path in this world. The deeds of people who followed the wrong path in this world will have no weight on the Day of Judgement. They will have a terrible time. Make the Holy Qur’an and Truth your guides for success. Umar, if you follow the path I propose for you, I will surely be by your side.’
Umar more than lived up to Caliph Abu Bakr’s wise words; indeed, he thrived and excelled in so many ways that his reign has found its way into Muslim folklore. Muslim children across the globe grow up listening to their parents and grandparents relating tales about Caliph Umar and his glorious achievements. Some of Umar’s salient contributions included the development of a functioning Islamic democracy, and the formation of a Council of Advisors to discuss and debate issues before final decisions were made. He established the rule of law across the rapidly expanding Islamic State and ensured that equality of treatment and freedom of expression were made the cornerstones of his reign. Ordinary people could stand up in the mosque and interrupt him in the middle of his sermon or announcement to challenge him on any policy issues including taxation, political administration, civil matters, military affairs or the allocation of marriage dowry. He was fully accountable to his people. If any complaint was raised, Umar made sure it was dealt with immediately and he never hesitated in correcting his own mistakes, or those of who served under him. If the complainants were found to be wrong, he reasoned with them on the basis of the Qur’an and Prophetic teachings (sunnah).
With the rapid expansion of the Islamic dominion, Umar devised a provincial system of administration and appointed governors to oversee the smooth running of each province, with all the governors reporting directly to him. Although he was based at his headquarters in Madinah, Umar always kept in close contact with all his governors, never failing to remind them about the importance of serving the people with honesty, fairness, justice and equality. A functioning judicial system was devised and implemented by Umar, so that legal disputes could be resolved in a fair and effective manner in accordance with Islamic principles and guidelines. He developed an equally efficient taxation and revenue department, which collected and distributed zakat (poor due), taxes and other revenues from all the regions of the Islamic State, under the supervision of the chief treasurer who reported directly to him. Looking after the welfare of the poor, needy, orphans and disabled people was vitally important to Umar, because he felt he was directly responsible for their well-being. In order to meet the needs of society’s most vulnerable people, Umar established a social security system. Being one of the most learned companions of the Prophet, he promoted learning and education by constructing mosques and schools across the Islamic dominion. Indeed, during his reign, mosques and educational centres mushroomed throughout the Islamic State; he also helped to rebuild such prominent cities as Basrah, Kufah, al-Fustat and Mosul, and these subsequently became some of the most prominent centres of Islamic learning, culture and civilisation.
In addition, Umar kept a regular army that was well-disciplined, highly-skilled and dedicated, so that even the well-equipped, professional soldiers of the Persian and Byzantine Empires were not a match for them. It is to Umar’s great credit that, for the first time in Islamic history, an Islamic calendar was introduced which Muslims could call their own. The hijri calendar was devised during Umar’s reign, the first day being fixed as the one on which the Prophet left Makkah for Madinah in 622. Caliph Umar was a versatile genius, a great democratic ruler and, equally, a compassionate man who assumed leadership of the embryonic Islamic State and within a decade transformed it into a powerful empire, consisting of whole of Arabia and significant parts of the Persian and Byzantine Empires. That is why his reign is widely recognised as the Golden Age of Islam. Prior to his death, Caliph Umar appointed an illustrious six-man panel to nominate his successor. Being one of the most civilised and democratic rulers of his time, he deliberately chose not to nominate his successor.
Following in the footsteps of the Prophet and his immediate predecessor, Umar wanted the masses, or their representatives, to have a say in the matter. Umar – who was given the title of al-faruq (the differentiator between right and wrong) by the Prophet for his wisdom and sense of justice – passed away at the age of around sixty-three and was buried in Madinah next to the Prophet (his mentor and guide), and Caliph Abu Bakr, his best friend. It is not possible to exaggerate Umar’s greatness, for as the Prophet once remarked, ‘Among the nations before your time there have been inspired people (who were not prophets), and if there is one among my people he is Umar.’ (Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim)
IN ANY BOOK of most influential Muslims, Ali ibn Abi Talib is bound to appear near the very top of the list. He is famous for his impeccable character, loving personality and unflinching devotion to Islam. As one of the foremost figures of early Islam, he is profoundly revered as one of the four ‘rightly-guided caliphs’ (al-khulafa alrashidun) along with Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, Umar ibn al-Khattab and Uthman ibn Affan. However, within the Shi’a branch of Islam, Ali is a pivotal figure. So much so that without the charismatic and indomitable personality of Ali there would not be a Shi’a branch of Islam at all. As such, he occupies a prominent and unique position as the fourth Caliph of Islam, and the first Imam of the Shi’ias.
Born into the Hashimite family of the Quraysh tribe of Makkah, Ali ibn Abi Talib was a cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. He became a Muslim about a year after Muhammad announced his Prophethood. Ali was barely ten at the time and he became the first boy to embrace Islam. Brought up and educated by the Prophet, Ali became one of his foremost supporters from the outset. Once, the Prophet invited all the leaders of Quraysh to a meal in order to share the message
