the triumphs of the hwarang. Considered at its pinnacle to be one of the most advanced civilizations on earth, this period in Korean history represents a time of growth and reorganization for the emerging nation-state. Wang Kon, adept in the native martial art of subak descended from a dominant clan of seafarers located in Seongdo, the site of present-day Kaesong. It was here partially based on geomancy that he chose to build his capital, once assuming kingship. A devout Buddhist later known as King T’aejo, Wang Kon ruled with compassion and demonstrated remarkable mercy over vanquished adversaries. Elevated by the conviction that he shared a direct link to the kings of Koguryo, he legitimized the throne by marrying a Silla princess. His deep-seated ideological views reflected a belief that Koryo’s long term well-being was based on the mercy of Buddha.
With Wang Kon as their predecessor, thirty-seven rulers lauded over wondrous advances that became the hallmark of the Koryo dynasty. Restructuring, reforms, and technological advances were seen in all areas of society, including agriculture, education, taxation, and diplomatic relations with foreign powers. The newly centralized government, the first to create a truly unified national identity, was administered by bureaucrats and scholars who rose to positions of power dependent not on birth as before, but through a series of civil service examinations. A university and local area schools were established in answer to a revitalized thirst for knowledge. In 1234, moveable metal type was invented, preceding Guttenberg by 200 years. Celadon porcelain developed by Koryo artisans, noted for its colorful green, blue, and white glaze, to this day captures the attention of collectors. Thought to have been influenced by Song pottery, the intricacy of Koryo ceramics remained unmatched in large part due to its complex inlays. Specimens of this unique Korean craftwork exist today in major museums throughout the world. Alongside these innovations, trade flourished with merchants swapping gold, silver, and ginseng, among others commodities, for Chinese silk. Moreover, in opposition to customs that were later institutionalized during the Chosun era (1392–1910) and upheld until the twenty-first century, the Koryo citizenry embraced a relatively strong matrilineal system. Women were permitted rights of inheritance and widows granted the right to remarry. But perhaps one of the greatest legacies of this time was the creation of the Tripitaka Koreana, the oldest known error-free version of the Buddhist canon consisting of 52,382,960 characters. Believing that the power of prayer would turn back the Mongol invasion, Buddhist monks undertook the task of engraving over 80,000 wooden plates containing the most sacred of scriptures. Blocks of birch imported from surrounding islands were treated extensively with seawater and aged for three years prior to carving. Requiring 16 years to complete, the Tripitaka Koreana, or Palman Daejanggyeong, now resides in the safety of Haeinsa Temple built in AD 802, located on Kaya Mountain in Kyeongsang Province.
Even as Confucianism held sway over the political structure of Koryo, Zen (Seon) Buddhism remained the nation’s prime philosophical and religious paradigm. As threats from the north increased, Buddhist monks, ignoring the fact that core doctrine forbade the taking of life, nonetheless took up arms for the purpose of protecting monastic holdings while actively participating militarily in the interest of national defense. Defeated several times at the hands of Jurchen invaders, who were reinforced by the nomadic Khitan tribes, strategic necessity warranted the creation of an elite cadre outside the structure of the armed forces known as the P’yomuban or the Extraordinary Military Corps. This entity was composed of three divisions: elite, youthful warriors made up the Sin’gigun; the Sinbugun, which included peasants supplemented by rank and file soldiers; and lastly, the Hangmagun, comprised of battle-trained Buddhist monks fighting under the banner of the Subdue Demon Corps credited with repulsing the Jurchen invaders. Aside from these Buddhist-based and regular army troops, it is purported that clandestine martial arts training took place behind palace doors. Supposedly influenced by ancient fighting techniques, Royal Court Martial Arts or Koong Joong Mu Sool was taught and the common folk were excluded.
Tripitaka Koreana. Courtesy of Korea Tourism Organization.
In large part due to its strategic location and the border it shared with its northern neighbors, Koryo sovereignty was constantly challenged. By 1044, a massive defensive structure in the form of a great wall had been built extending from the Amnok River, now the Yalu, to Hamhung on the east coast of what is today North Korea. Nevertheless, massive structures such as these could not defend against domestic strife. In 1170, following a military coup lead by General Ch’ung-hon Ch’oe, civilian control of the government ended with power being consolidated within the Ch’oe family essentially reducing the king to a figurehead. Yet, over time, it became clear that the military dictatorship was incapable of providing economic security, resulting in the reinstatement of a civilian bureaucracy. Furthermore, the ongoing struggle for internal stability was radically compounded in 1232 by the Mongol invasion. Following the capture of the capitol at Seongdo, the royalty sought refuge on the island of Kanghwa-do, effectively establishing a government-in-exile within its own borders. Spared by the fact that the Mongol cavalry feared crossing the waters between the island and the mainland, a distance of only a few short miles, the nation was nonetheless mercilessly reduced to a vassal state. Although the Koryo military continued to offer significant resistance, imperialistic forces ravaged the nation leaving a path of devastation and hardship in its wake. With opposition waning, the king finally sued for peace and in 1270 once again returned to the throne.
For the remainder of the thirteenth century, Koryo sovereignty continued to decline. The royal bloodline became intermingled through marriage with that of the occupiers, resulting in the monarchy having little sway over domestic and foreign affairs. Militarily, the forced alliance between the Koryo and Mongol armies was destined to create an armada that persistently challenged the ill-prepared samurai of Japan. In 1281, with a combined force of 3,500 Chinese ships bolstered by 900 Koryo vessels and tens of thousands of soldiers, the joint armies were well on their way to conquering the outnumbered Kamakura shogunate at Kyushu when a punishing typhoon ensued. Interestingly, the apparent consequences of this key battle largely depend, as in most cases of historical conveyance, on which of the combatants relates the tale.6 Contrary to claims made by Japanese historians, Koryo naval tacticians, anticipating the foul weather, commanded a return to port with a marginal loss of ten to fifteen percent of the fleet. Conversely, local Japanese legend has it that Buddhist monk Il Yuk, observing the advancing ships from afar, sat chanting and, with each recitation of his mantra, whipped the waves into a frenzied tempest of monumental proportions. This “divine wind” or kamikaze caused the ships to break up, ultimately devastating the Koryo and Mongol forces and placing victory in the hands of the Japanese.
A preoccupation with the emerging Ming later siphoned off Mongol resources permitting a modicum of independence for the Koryo populace during the 1300s. This minor reprieve from total dominance was nevertheless offset by coastal incursions from Japanese pirates and far-reaching land reforms that struck at the very heart of the agrarian culture. Buddhist institutions, having merged politics with its status as a state religion, along with the landed aristocracy, fell prey to this restructuring. However, the final nail in Koryo’s coffin was hammered in by the influence of Neo-Confucianism.7 Strict ethical values riding on the back of conservative doctrine eroded the supremacy of the nobility and that of abusive Buddhist monks. Once a bastion of strength, the power of the aristocracy in tandem with that of religious leaders began to crumble.
By the late 1300s, the virtuous effects of Buddhism had spun out of control, poisoning the upper echelons of Koryo government with potential leaders required to become Buddhist monks as a prerequisite to kingship. Against this backdrop of social upheaval rose Song Gye Yi, an illustrious general who was destined to unalterably transform the complexion of the nation. The last of the Koryo monarchs, against the will of the people, ordered Yi to mount an attack on Ming forces garrisoned in Manchuria. With the unanimous support of the general populace, Yi refused, lying siege to the capital instead. The siege resulted in the ousting of the unpopular ruler and the establishment by Song Gye Yi of the Chosun Dynasty, the most enduring nation-state in Korean history.
Given the deteriorating
