cultural model which is used to diagnose problems and allows for planning of intervention was designed by D. Denison. It is based on the assumption of coherence between organisational culture and strategy and distinguishes four dimensions, each divided into three operational dimensions:←63 | 64→
1. Mission is divided into the parameters of strategic direction, strategic aims and the organisation’s vision.
2. The ability to adapt was described with the use of the creation of changes, orientation towards customers and organisational learning.
3. Involvement was analysed with the use of empowerment, orientation towards teams and the development of skills.
4. Coherence consists of the basic values, consistency and integration.
Diagnosis of a culture leads to the description of a culture model from the point of view of its flexibility, stability and openness, which in turn allows us to foresee its effectiveness.
For the purpose of his own research, R. A. Cooke devised An Organisational Culture Inventory, which makes it possible to measure the intensity of 12 norms of organisational behaviour, located within three areas: 1) cultural constructivism, 2) passivity and defensiveness, and 3) aggression and defensiveness. This model makes use of normative assumptions and a constructive culture, accepting it as positive and effectiveness-oriented, while the other two types of culture are just the opposite. Constructive cultures are oriented towards social relationships and satisfying the higher needs of the organisation’s members. They value working in groups, which is especially important in the case of complex, creative work. The norms of conservative cultures include achievements, self-fulfilment, encouragement to develop, as well as a sense of belonging and cooperation. Passive and defensive cultures are oriented towards tasks and cooperation with people who do not pose a potential threat to professional status or position. The key element is the defence of one’s position in an organisation with the use of a network of influences, satisfying superiors’ needs, as well as avoiding confrontation and conflict. This type of culture results in lower motivation and a drop in the effectiveness of employees. Norms, with the use of which the passive and defensive culture is operationalised, include striving for approval, conventionalism, dependence and avoidance.
Aggressive and defensive cultures are oriented towards tasks, competition and individual needs. The key value is power, which can lead to entanglement in internal status conflicts, which results in lower effectiveness. Employees are encouraged to compete, and they strive to strengthen their influence. The most important norms include opposition and criticism of others, fights over power and influence, competitiveness (the aim of which is to defend one’s own position), and perfectionism leading to attachment to the process and details.
G. Hofstede proposed typical models of organisational culture, characteristic of chosen cultural circles. The two key dimensions in this case are power ←64 | 65→distance and uncertainty avoidance, the combination of which gives rise to a typology of four models of ideal organisational cultures, characteristic of five cultural circles113:
A two-dimensional typology of organisational cultures, which draws on G. Hofstede’s concept, was proposed by C. Hampden-Turner and F. Trompenaars. The combination of these dimensions created four ideal models, described metaphorically as: Incubator, Guided missile, Family and the Eiffel Tower, which are references to the types of organisational culture characteristic of different cultural circles:
One of the oldest concepts of cultural management includes the notion of organisational climate. A climate is what the employees of a given organisation believe to exist, but is not necessarily what actually is. The author lists four types of organisational climate: autocratic, bureaucratic, innovative and informal. The climate of a given organisation is the result of the dominant form of its ←65 | 66→management’s motivation, which can be oriented to achievement, power, security or a sense of belonging. In consequence, the motivation of power, resulting from the need to exercise influence and to control others, leads to the creation of an autocratic climate, dominated by power and influence, as in the case of R. Harrison’s culture of power. Interpersonal relationships include, on the one hand, domination, and on the other, submission. Promotion is related to fulfilling superiors’ orders without any mistakes. Organisational power focuses on controlling the information flow and increasing the extent of the subordination of others. The motivation of achievements contributes to the creation of an innovative climate. This type of culture is dominated by creativity, the broadening of knowledge and the development of the skills and qualifications which are most useful to the fulfilment of its tasks. Management focuses on achieving the best results possible, encouraging its employees to be active and creative. Organisations of this type adjust flexibly to the different tasks and requirements of their environment. With the motivation of security, the striving for minimising physical and social threats creates a bureaucratic climate. This is clearly oriented towards stability, based on norms, rules and procedures. The management protect themselves by avoiding unforeseen events and risky ventures. Hierarchy plays an important role here, and internal organisation is formalised. Employees are passively subject to strict rules of action, which they have no influence on, while their development consists mainly in the assimilation of rules, regulations and skills that are formally certified. From the point of view of an informal climate, ←66 | 67→being part of a group is of key importance. This climate favours the ability to establish relationships and work in a team, while employees are equal partners who shape their activities together. The dominant value in an organisation is being accepted by the environment. Management focuses on the smoothing out of the influences of different employees, the development of social sensitivity, and the habit of helping and supporting others.
C. Sikorski divides organisational cultures by the attitude of the organisation’s members to cultural dissonance. Cultural dissonance is related to the existing differences between the ways employees think and behave in organisations, which are the most common reasons for conflict and misunderstanding. Cultural dissonance hinders the organisation’s functioning, especially in the case of multicultural organisations, international corporations and organisations including a number of different subcultures. The attitude towards this phenomenon is an important feature of organisational culture, which should be treated as a separate criterion for the typology of organisational cultures.
| Acceptance of cultural dissonance | Lack of acceptance of cultural dissonance | |
| Antagonistic relations | Culture of rivalryAn organisational culture characterised by strong rivalry. Its members believe that it is necessary to prove their superiority. There is a need to participate and have team achievements. A collectivist culture, focusing on the roles played by people. A heterogenic culture. There is a clash of different cultural patterns. Presence-oriented. |
Culture of dominanceA
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