or a more ecological situation), and the so-called “indirect” methods, which use questionnaires and are the most commonly used in neuropsychological assessments of patients with executive dysfunction or of very young children.
Chapter 2 (Agnès Blaye) presents several developmental studies conducted with young children in which cognitive flexibility is understood as one of the manifestations of controlled and goal-directed cognitive functioning. Through various experiments focused on inflexible behaviors exhibited by very young children, this chapter empirically demonstrates that changing representations, or in other words being flexible, requires updating and then maintaining the new goals implied by the constraints of situations.
Chapter 3 (Valérie Pennequin) questions the links between executive functions and metacognition, and more specifically between cognitive flexibility and metacognition. After presenting definitions and parallel research on metacognition and executive functions, this chapter highlights the conceptual commonalities between these notions and presents empirical results on the complex links between them.
Chapter 4 (Calliste Scheibling-Sève, Elena Pasquinelli and Emmanuel Sander) deals with one of the major objectives advocated in educational policies, which is the education of critical thinking. Comparing philosophical and psychological approaches to this notion, whose definition does not have a consensus, the chapter deals with the cognitive mechanisms underlying critical thinking such as the change in point of view, metacognition or the recategorization of situations. A path for critical thinking education through the process of multiple categorization is proposed.
Chapter 5 (Evelyne Clément) deals with the crucial role of flexibility in problem solving. Focusing on the different factors involved in successful solution discovery, this chapter presents the results of empirical research conducted in education and cognitive psychology as well as recent work on the links between flexibility, creativity and academic performance. The benefit and implications of research on the development of educational programs to stimulate flexibility and creative thinking are discussed.
Chapter 6 (Jérôme Clerc and Laureen Josseron) presents a body of work on the development of transfer abilities, ranging from the transfer of perceptual properties, to the actions performed by others, via the transfer of relational properties, to the transfer of cognitive strategies. The links with cognitive flexibility, considered as the ability to apply knowledge to new situations in a flexible way, are discussed with regard to the transfer difficulties that young children may have.
Chapter 7 (Lucas Raynal) focuses on the role of cognitive flexibility in the processing of analogous situations which, although superficially different, are structurally identical. The body of research presented shows that some analogies can be perceived by relying on the way a situation is initially represented, while others require flexibility, that is, reconsidering the situation from a more abstract point of view. The study of the role of flexibility in processing analogies opens up educational avenues that are presented and discussed.
Chapter 8 (Hippolyte Gros and Katarina Gvozdic) reviews the contribution of research that studies cognitive flexibility in its interaction with the environment. In this chapter, all the works presented show how the contexts and contents of the situations on which our reasoning operates influence the expression of cognitive flexibility, which can slow down or promote the adoption of a new point of view on a concept, a situation or a problem. Reinforcing the flexibility with which individuals rely on the context to inform their reasoning is recommended.
1
Measures of Flexibility
Célia MAINTENANT and Gaëlle BODI
PAVeA, University of Tours, France
1.1. Introduction
In this chapter, we will focus on the measurement of cognitive flexibility. Without aiming to be exhaustive, we will attempt to review the various tools available to psychologists and/or researchers carrying out this measurement, but we will also present the usefulness of such a measurement. This chapter will therefore be organized into two parts corresponding, respectively, to the answers to the following two questions: Why measure flexibility? And how can we measure flexibility?
1.2. Why measure flexibility?
1.2.1. Cognitive flexibility in everyday life
There are many times when we need to be flexible in our day-to-day lives, whether it is when we need to switch from one activity to another, or adapt to something new in our environment. For example, flexibility allows us to switch quickly between parenting and work obligations, or to stay focused on an important conversation while making dinner. It is also useful when we need to adapt to a new route to get to work in the event of traffic works taking place on our usual route. It also helps us adapt to the new layout of the shelves in our favorite store.
A great deal of research has shown that cognitive flexibility is involved in a wide range of activities and is therefore essential in being able to properly adapt to our environment and enjoy a good quality of life (Cartwright et al. 2019).
From an early age, children have a form of flexibility that will then develop with advancing age, approximately until late adolescence (Fourneret and Portes 2017). From childhood, flexibility is important. It is necessary for children when they have to adapt to a change in subject matter at school, such as moving from working on a math concept to a reading activity in an adapted and controlled way. But it can also help children learn. For example, cognitive flexibility is involved in the reading fluency of 7-year-olds, and cognitive flexibility training can improve reading fluency in 8-year-olds with reading difficulties (Cartwright et al. 2019). In addition, cognitive flexibility helps children to use imagination and creativity to solve problems (Georgsdottir and Lubart 2003).
Like other executive functions, in young children, cognitive flexibility is critical for development and can predict academic success, but also later health and income (Munakata et al. 2013). It is also highly related to self-regulation and thus social adjustment (Benson and Sabbagh 2013; Rueda and Paz-Alonso 2013). Finally, various research has shown that it can be related to the development of theory of mind (Zelazo et al. 2002; Müller et al. 2005).
While cognitive flexibility plays an important role in the successful and adapted performance of many everyday activities, these activities can also play a role in the evolution of cognitive flexibility capacities. These abilities can be improved, for example, by daily or near-daily practice of video games, especially action video games. Indeed, better cognitive flexibility could be demonstrated by comparing action video game players to non-gamers (or people who play very little). This could be done by using either a purely transversal method with the direct comparison of a group of gamers to a group of non-gamers, or a semi-experimental one, creating a control condition versus an experimental condition, in which non-gamers have to play action video games for a given time with pre- and post-test flexibility measures (Colzato 2010; Karle et al. 2010; Strobach et al. 2012; Nouchi et al. 2013; Olfers and Band 2018). A recent review of the literature confirms the beneficial effects of video games on mental flexibility (Pallavicini
