growth of population was caused by a decline in the overall death rate of the population. The death rate fell largely in response to better medicine and health care, which led to fewer deaths, especially of infants, women in childbirth, and other historically vulnerable populations. Going from a high of around 40 or 50 deaths per thousand to fewer than 15 deaths per thousand, more people lived, and lived longer, during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in Europe than ever before. If the death rate falls and the birth rate remains unchanged, population growth occurs, and often at an exponential rate. As long as birth rates are higher than death rates, more people enter a population than leave it. Europe grew as a result.
Birth Rate A measure of natural growth in a population, typically expressed as the number of births per thousand population per year
Death Rate A measure of mortality in a population, typically expressed as the number of deaths per thousand population per year
Demographic Transition Model A model of population change that predicts a decline in population death rates associated with modernization, followed by a decline in birth rates resulting from industrialization and urbanization; this creates a sigmoidal curve where population growth increases rapidly for a period, then levels off
In the years of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, birth rates also began to fall. There are many reasons for this decline, and some remain a matter of debate. Nonetheless, as people moved into cities, the demand for family farm labor fell while the costs of raising and educating children increased. This led families to have fewer children and the birth rate fell, from a high between 40 or 50 births per thousand to a low closer to 10 or 15. Once the birth and death rates came to match, population growth halted. In many countries, like Russia, the death rate is currently higher than the birth rate, leading to a decrease in population. Current growth rates are mapped in Figure 2.4 and show great international variation in population growth.
Figure 2.4 Population growth rates worldwide by country. Source: Data from Population Reference Bureau, http://www.prb.org/DataFinder/Topic/Rankings.aspx?ind=250
The demographic transition model or DTM (sketched in Figure 2.5) is an abstract representation of this process that is often used to describe what happened in Europe during this period. Generally it assumes that some form of economic development and change from agricultural to industrial society drives the population toward a period of high population growth, followed by a cessation of growth.
Figure 2.5 The demographic transition model. In theory, falling death rates lead to population growth, but as birth rates fall thereafter, the rate of growth slows, eventually ceasing when the two reach equilibrium.
It is tempting to use the DTM to predict what might happen in other parts of the world and in other periods of history. After all, the processes that accompanied demographic transition in Europe are also ongoing in other parts of the globe. Urbanization, decreased proportion of the population in farming, changes in jobs, and the expenses and benefits related to having children are all facts of life in China, India, and much of Africa and Central and South America, although they happen at different times and under different conditions.
For demographers, there is a parallel expectation of demographic transition (Newbold 2010). Human pressure on the environment, it might similarly be predicted, will also cease growing (assuming that affluence and consumption do not change for each person!).
Women’s Rights, Education, Autonomy, and Fertility Behavior
However, mounting evidence from around the world demonstrates that population and resource transitions are far more diverse and have far more drivers and explanations than the DTM might suggest. In some countries or regions, population growth has fallen dramatically, for example, in the absence of significant economic growth and change. The state of Kerala in southern India is a paramount example of such an outcome. In the 1950s, this small rural state had the highest population growth rate in India but by the 1990s it was among the lowest, falling from 44 per thousand in 1951 to 18 per thousand in 1991 (Parayil 2000). How was this transition achieved, since – contrary to the DTM – the population remains largely rural and manages with a lower than average gross domestic product per capita, even lower than other states within India?
The secret may be outside of strictly economic factors. Kerala has a higher than average level of women’s education and literacy and a higher than average availability of rural health care – especially for women. This is a universal phenomenon, moreover, and women’s education and literacy correlate significantly with lower fertility rates, a measure of the number of children the average woman in a place has over her reproductive lifespan (Figure 2.6). Where women’s rights are observed and protected, population growth ends.
Figure 2.6 National fertility and female literacy rates around the world: 2006. As female literacy increases, and along with it women’s autonomy and employment, fertility rates fall to replacement levels. Source: Analysis by authors; Data from Population Reference Bureau (2008). World Population Data Sheet from www.prb.org/Publications/Datasheets/2008/2008wpds.asp (accessed 7 October 2009).
Fertility Rate A measure describing the average number of children birthed by an average statistical woman during her reproductive lifetime
There are questions about whether correlation here is linked to causality. In countries with lower fertility rates, for example, women are freer to pursue education. Both women’s education and lower fertility may themselves be caused by other factors in culture and society. Even so, reduced fertility rates are also associated with the availability of condoms, the availability of women’s reproductive health care on demand, and the social/political “autonomy” of women (meaning social ability to make independent decisions) within households and communities. Put simply, it is increasingly clear that the political and economic condition of women in society is the best and most reliable predictor of demographic conditions. To the degree that population is an influence on the environment, the solution to ecological problems therefore lies in women’s rights around the world.
The Potential Violence and Injustice of Population-centered Thinking
Given that population may be an effect of other economic and political processes, that affluence and consumption have a large hand in determining the environmental impacts of populations of any size, and that some growth in population may lead to increased rather than decreased resources, what are the implications of thinking about environmental problems in strictly demographic terms?
For critics of population control, the implications are serious indeed. For such critics, the history of population politics and efforts at control are fraught with violence and injustice. Consider, for example, the Indian emergency during the period of Indira Gandhi’s rule in the 1970s. In 1975 Mrs. Gandhi declared martial law and made the end of population growth, through dramatic measures, including mass sterilization camps, the rationing of food and services contingent on family size, and even forced sterilization of
