words violate the most frequent letter‐sound correspondences. This type of addressed phonology also works in non‐alphabetic languages such as Chinese.
Figure 4.6 Brain regions involved in language processing, illustrating the dorsal pathway, connecting the phonology‐related brain areas, and the ventral pathway, connecting the meaning‐related brain areas. The pathways are bidirectional, combining bottom‐up and top‐down information streams.aFG = anterior fusiform gyrus, AG = angular gyrus, aSTG = anterior superior temporal gyrus, IFG = inferior frontal gyrus (also called Broca’s area), MFG = middle frontal gyrus, mSTG = middle superior temporal gyrus (includes the primary auditory cortex), PCA = precentral area, pFG = posterior fusiform gyrus, pSTG = posterior superior temporal gyrus (also called Wernicke’s area), SMG = supramarginal gyrus, SPL = superior parietal lobule.
For some time, researchers defended extreme positions about the contribution of phonology to visual word recognition: Either it was not involved at all, or phonological recoding was an essential step in visual word recognition. At present, it is widely accepted that orthographic and phonological information jointly contribute to visual word recognition and that this is achieved through rapid interactions between different forms of coding information in the brain. I discussed three computational models of how this can be realised (the DRC model, the CDP+ model, and the Triangle model). The hypothesis of two pathways in written word recognition with multiple interactions between orthographic, phonological and semantic codes also provides fruitful insights for the understanding of brain activity in visual word recognition (Figures 4.5 and 4.6).
In summary, it is clear from the evidence reviewed in this chapter, that visual language processing cannot be understood properly without taking phonology into account.
References
1 Adelman, J. S., Johnson, R. L., McCormick, S. F., McKague, M., Kinoshita, S., Bowers, J. S., … & Scaltritti, M. (2014). A behavioral database for masked form priming. Behavior Research Methods, 46(4), 1052–1067. doi: 10.3758/s13428‐013‐0442‐y.
2 Alderson‐Day, B., & Fernyhough, C. (2015). Inner speech: Development, cognitive functions, phenomenology, and neurobiology. Psychological Bulletin, 141(5), 931–965. doi: 10.1037/bul0000021.
3 Antia, S. D., Lederberg, A. R., Easterbrooks, S., Schick, B., Branum‐Martin, L., Connor, C. M., & Webb, M. Y. (2020). Language and reading progress of young deaf and hard‐of‐hearing Children. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 25(3), 334–350. doi: 10.1093/deafed/enz050.
4 Bakhtin, M.M. (1981). The Dialogic Imagination. University of Texas Press.
5 Besner, D. (1987). Phonology, lexical access in reading, and articulatory suppression: A critical review. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 39(3), 467–478. doi: 10.1080/14640748708401799.
6 Blazely, A. M., Coltheart, M., & Casey, B. J. (2005). Semantic impairment with and without surface dyslexia: Implications for models of reading. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 22(6), 695–717. doi: 10.1080/02643290442000257.
7 Blythe, H. I., Dickins, J. H., Kennedy, C. R., & Liversedge, S. P. (2018). Phonological processing during silent reading in teenagers who are deaf/hard of hearing: An eye movement investigation. Developmental Science, 21(5), e12643. doi: 10.1111/desc.12643.
8 Brysbaert, M. (2003). Bilingual visual word recognition: Evidence from masked phonological priming. In S. Kinoshita & S.J. Lupker (Eds.), Masked priming: The state‐of‐the‐art (pp. 323–343). Psychology Press.
9 Brysbaert, M. (2019). How many words do we read per minute? A review and meta‐analysis of reading rate. Journal of Memory and Language, 109, 104047. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2019.104047.
10 Brysbaert, M., Speybroeck, S., & Vanderelst, D. (2009). Is there room for the BBC in the mental lexicon? On the recognition of acronyms. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1832–1842. doi: 10.1080/17470210802585471.
11 Brysbaert, M., Van Dyck, G., & Van de Poel, M. (1999). Visual word recognition in bilinguals: evidence from masked phonological priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25(1), 137–148. doi: 10.1037//0096‐1523.25.1.137.
12 Cai, Q., Lavidor, M., Brysbaert, M. Paulignan, Y., & Nazir, T.A. (2008). Cerebral lateralization of frontal lobe language processes and the lateralization of the posterior visual word processing system. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 672–681. doi: 10.1162/jocn.2008.20043.
13 Caravolas, M., Lervåg, A., Defior, S., Seidlová Málková, G., & Hulme, C. (2013). Different patterns, but equivalent predictors, of growth in reading in consistent and inconsistent orthographies. Psychological Science, 24(8), 1398–1407. doi: 10.1177/0956797612473122.
14 Carver, R. P. (1982). Optimal rate of reading prose. Reading Research Quarterly, 56–88. doi: 10.2307/747538.
15 Chang, Y. N., Taylor, J. S. H., Rastle, K., & Monaghan, P. (2020). The relationships between oral language and reading instruction: Evidence from a computational model of reading. Cognitive Psychology, 123, 101336. doi: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2020.101336.
16 Chitiri, H. F., & Willows, D. M. (1997). Bilingual word recognition in English and Greek. Applied Psycholinguistics, 18(2), 139–156. doi: 10.1017/S0142716400009942.
17 Coltheart, M., Patterson, K., & Marshall, J. C. (1987). Deep dyslexia since 1980. In M. Coltheart, K. Patterson, & J. C. Marshall (Eds.), International library of psychology. Deep dyslexia (pp. 407–451). Routledge.
18 Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108(1), 204–256. doi: 10.1037/0033‐295x.108.1.204.
19 Costello, B., Caffarra, S., Fariña, N., Duñabeitia, J.A., & Carreiras, M. (2021). Reading without phonology: ERP evidence from skilled deaf readers of Spanish. Scientific Reports, 11, 5202. doi: 10.1038/s41598‐021‐84490‐5.
20 Daneman, M., & Stainton, M. (1991). Phonological recoding in silent reading. Journal of experimental psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17(4), 618–632. doi: 10.1037/0278‐7393.17.4.618.
21 Davis, C. J. (2010). The spatial coding model of visual word identification. Psychological Review, 117(3), 713–758. doi: 10.1037/a0019738.
22 Dehaene, S., Cohen, L., Morais, J., & Kolinsky, R. (2015). Illiterate to literate: Behavioural and cerebral changes induced by reading acquisition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(4), 234–244. doi: 10.1038/nrn3924.
23 Drewnowski, A., & Healy, A. F. (1982). Phonetic factors in letter detection: A reevaluation. Memory & cognition, 10(2), 145–154. doi: 10.3758/bf03209216.
24 Ferrand, L., & Grainger, J. (1994). Effects of orthography are independent of phonology in masked form priming. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47(2), 365–382. doi: 10.1080/14640749408401116.
25 Forster,
