can help support dogs in shelters.
1.6.3.4 Conspecifics
Pair or group housing of dogs is often recommended (Hetts et al. 1992). The presence of conspecifics can offer more social complexity—in terms of social interactions and even olfactory composition—which could decrease abnormal behaviors and mitigate stress (Taylor and Mills 2007). At the same time, social housing benefits could be confounded by increased space as well as environmental complexity. While a pilot study moving long‐term kenneled dogs from solitary to pair housing identified considerable individual variation, behavior observations generally supported social housing (Grigg et al. 2017). Socially housed dogs showed less active vigilance and a trend toward a reduction in repetitive jumping and pacing as well as a reduction in barking. While aggression or fights are offered as reasons against group housing, these concerns have not been substantiated (Mertens and Unshelm 1996). At the same time, individual dog considerations—such as a history of or observed aggression—and shelter‐level features—such as organizational philosophy, facility design, and operation and monitoring capabilities—also factor into social housing decisions.
1.6.3.5 Smells
Introduced odors have had varied effects on dogs. Dogs in the shelter exposed to diffused lavender and chamomile rested more and were less active than dogs exposed to no scent, rosemary, or peppermint (Graham et al. 2005). Introducing pheromones may also affect behavior. Dogs exposed to dog‐appeasing pheromone (DAP)—a synthetic version of the pheromone secreted by lactating females after giving birth—for three hours daily on five consecutive days lay down more compared to a control group (Amaya et al. 2020). However, while some studies observe a reduction in stress‐related behaviors when exposed to DAP, others have not (Tod et al. 2005; Hermiston et al. 2018). Cleaning products, or the husbandry activities associated with cleaning, could also act as stressors for dogs (Rooney et al. 2009).
1.6.3.6 Sounds
Shelter acoustics generally include husbandry‐oriented noises, people talking at varying decibels, barking, and even loud music. Shelter noise levels are in the area of 85 to 120 db, comparable to a subway, jackhammer, or propeller aircraft (Coppola et al. 2006). Noises, depending on their regularity and acoustic properties, can promote acute or chronic stress. Benefits of the addition of human‐centric noises, such as different types of music, is somewhat equivocal. Heavy metal music significantly increased dog body shaking, whereas classical music was associated with more resting behavior (Wells et al. 2002). At the same time, the effect of the same or inescapable music over extended periods of time has not been studied.
1.6.3.7 Lack of Predictability and Control
Lack of predictability and control over contingencies are known challenges to welfare (Taylor and Mills 2007). Dogs living on the streets or in homes build up expectations and associations in relation to known environments. The imposition of daily cleaning and feeding and walking schedules as well as consistent interactions can offer shelter dogs a sense of predictability. However, excessive monotony is a risk factor for dogs as well. Creating motivations for dogs to perform behaviors for particular rewards could enhance welfare, and positive affective states could be achieved as a result of self‐directed problem solving (McGowan et al. 2014). Identifying potential shelter stressors provides an opportunity to ameliorate them and make them predictable, controllable, or decreased in terms of intensity, frequency, or duration. In shelters, control can be diminished by physical restriction, for example, in terms of space, that limits agency to flee or retreat. As a result, frustration or appetitive behaviors may appear as well as new, possibly undesirable behaviors.
1.7 Conclusions
Dogs have a unique worldview that differs from that of other companion animal species. Although dogs and humans have lived together for thousands of years, dogs maintain their own species‐specific worldview, behaviors, and interests. Dogs have not become more “human‐like” because some now have birthday parties or Instagram accounts. Dogs living on streets will scavenge, while dogs living in homes might be reprimanded for “exploring” the trash—same behavior, interpreted differently due to context. This chapter asks that people regard dogs on their terms, not ours, and pay direct attention to in situ behavior.
Acknowledgments
We thank Natalya Zahn for lending her artistic talents and eye for dogs to this project. Heaps of thanks to Merav Stein (first edition) and Molly Ball (second edition) for taking on the unenviable task of citation compilation and editing.Please visit the companion website for video clips and downloadable resources associated with this chapter.
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