Part IV covers the degradation and environmental issues of PLA. Bio‐ and physicochemical degradation phenomena of PLA are discussed in great length by various authors. Chapter 19 presents the mechanisms of photodegradation and radiolysis of PLA. Thermal degradation phenomena are highly relevant during the processing of PLA; Chapter 20 focuses on this topic wherein the authors address the apparent complexities of degradation kinetics through a multi‐step complex reaction analysis method. Chapter 21 discusses the mechanisms of hydrolytic degradation, taking polymer (e.g., molecular structure/weight, highly ordered structures, blends) and medium (e.g., temperature, pH) factors into considerations. Complementarily, Chapter 22 reviews the literature on enzymatic degradation, focusing on PLA derived from melt‐crystallized, solvent‐cast, and blend films. Recent advances in enzymes that degrade PLAs and their copolymers are also presented. The next two chapters deal with environmental issues, including topics such as life cycle assessment (Chapter 23) and end‐of‐life scenarios (Chapter 24). Finally, in Part V, various applications for PLA are discussed, including medical items (Chapter 25), packaging and consumer goods (Chapter 26), textiles (Chapter 27), and environmental applications (Chapter 28).
TABLE P.1 Significant Events Related to PLA Production that Occurred Over the Past Few Decades
| 2021 | NatureWorks production capacity reached 150,000 metric tons in Blair, NE, and a new plant of 75,000 metric tons in the Nakhon Sawan Province, Thailand was announced to be opened in 2024. Total Corbion produces 75,000 metric tons in Rayong, Thailand, and it announces a second plant in Grandpuits, France |
| 2015 | Enzyme‐based technology by Carbios rendering biodegradation of PLA at mesophilic conditions |
| 2012 | Announcement of production of high‐heat PLA by Total Corbion enabling durable applications |
| 2010 | Jung et al. employed recombinant Escherichia coli to produce PLAa |
| 2009 | PURAC, Sulzer, and Synbra announced production of PLA from solid lactide for foamed products |
| 2009 | Galactic and Total Petrochemicals from Belgium created a joint venture, Futerro, to begin PLA production |
| 2009 | Cargill, Inc. acquired full NatureWorks ownership from Teijin Ltd. |
| 2008 | Uhde Inventa Fischer and Pyramide Bioplastics announced large‐scale production of PLA in Guben, Germany |
| 2008 | PURAC started to commercialize solid lactide monomers under PURALACT™ |
| 2007 | Teijin launched heat‐resistant stereocomplex PLA under Biofront™ |
| 2007 | NatureWorks LLC and Teijin Limited formed 50–50 joint venture to market Ingeo™ biobased thermoplastic resins |
| 2005 | Cargill, Inc. acquired The Dow Chemical Company’s share in Cargill‐Dow LLC 50–50 joint venture |
| 2003 | Toyota produced and developed PLA for automotive applications |
| 1997 | Formation of Cargill‐Dow LLC, a 50–50 joint venture of Cargill, Inc., and The Dow Chemical Company to commercialize PLA under the tradename NatureWorks™ |
| 1997 | Fiberweb (now BBA, France) introduced melt‐blown and spunlaid PLA fabrics under Deposa™ brand name |
| 1996 | Mitsui Chemicals commercialize PLA produced by polycondensation route |
| 1994 | Kanebo Ltd. introduced Lactron® PLLA fiber and spun‐laid nonwovens |
| 1990s | Cargill polymerized high‐molecular‐weight LA using commercially viable lactide ring‐opening reaction |
| 1932 | Wallace Hume Carothers and coworkers polymerized lactide to produce PLA |
| 1845 | Théophile Jules Pelouze synthetized PLA by lactic acid condensation |
a Jung et al. [1].
More than 10 years have passed since the first edition of this volume was published in 2010. During this period, there have been considerable scientific advancements and technological developments of PLA. PLA continues to captivate the interests of technologists and researchers, as reflected by the sustained increase in the number of publications related to PLA (Figure P.1). The main goal for the second edition is to update the volume with new progress made on various topics of PLA. We made a minor change in the book title, adding “End of Life” to it given the expanded discussions related to this area.
FIGURE P.1 Number of publications since 1984 based on Web of Science search (accessed on 24 September 2021) using the keywords (“polylactide,” “poly(lactic acid),”, and “polylactic acid.”
For completeness and better flow, we deliberately allowed some overlap between chapters so that they are relatively stand‐alone. Chapter 1 is a reprint from the first edition. Chapter 9 is a reprint from Chapter 10 of the first edition. Since the theoretical framework of rheology for PLA remains valid, we have decided to include this chapter in the present edition. In addition, a part of Chapter 20, “Spinning of poly(lactic acid) fibers,” from the first edition is now incorporated in Chapter 13 of the present edition.
We are grateful to all authors who contributed their manuscripts and thankful to them for entrusting us to edit their contributions to meet the needs of this volume. It would not have been possible to complete this
