Incense burner in the shape of a Lian house, late Han dynasty, 20–22 °CE. Ceramic with lead glaze, height: 15 cm. Musée national des Arts asiatiques – Guimet, Paris. Chinese Antiquity.
64. Anonymous. Embellished vase, Roman period, 2nd-3rd century CE. Glass, bronze, and gold. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Egyptian Antiquity.
65. Anonymous. Cup belonging to Lycurgus, 4th century BCE. Gilded ruby, glass mixture, gold, and silver with copper highlights, height: 16.5 cm. British Museum, London. Roman Antiquity.
66. Anonymous. Lamp with the figure of the god Bes, beginning of the 2nd century. Terracotta, height: 21.5 cm. British Museum, London. Egyptian Antiquity.
67. Anonymous. Adoration of the Magi, c. 200. Fresco. Capella Greca, Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome. Romanesque.
68. Anonymous. The Good Shepherd, c. 250. Fresco. Capella Greca, Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome. Romanesque.
69. Anonymous. King Hunting Rams, plate, 5th-6th century. Silver, mercury gilding, niello inlay, diameter: 21.9 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Persian Antiquity.
70. Anonymous. The Missorium of Theodosius, 387–388. Silver, partially gilded, diameter: 74 cm. Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. Byzantine Antiquity.
71. Anonymous. Scipio’s shield, end of the 4th century or beginning of the 5th century. Silver, partially gilded, diameter: 71 cm. Cabinet des Médailles, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. Byzantine Antiquity.
72. Anonymous. Medal of Emperor Constantine the Great, 315. Silver, diameter: 2.4 cm. Staatliche Münzsammlung München, Munich. Romanesque.
73. Anonymous. Medal of Emperor Constantine the Great and the sun god, Sol, 313. Gold. Cabinet des Médailles, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. Romanesque.
74. Anonymous. Embellished bottle, Roman period, 4th century. Terracotta, height: 30.5 cm. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Egyptian Antiquity.
75. Anonymous. Bracelet, end of the 4th century or beginning of the 5th century. Gold and coloured stones, diameter: 7.5 cm. Cabinet des Médailles, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris. Byzantine Antiquity.
76. Anonymous. Jason and Medea, end of the 4th century or beginning of the 5th century. Tapestry in polychrome linen, diameter: 7 cm. Musée de Cluny, Paris. Egyptian Antiquity.
77. Anonymous. Lustre, 5th-7th century. Bronze (bobeches in modern glass), height: 18 cm; diameter: 48.5 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Byzantine.
Middle Ages
78. Anonymous. Sarcophagus, probably belonging to Archbishop Theodor,end of the 5th century or beginning of the 6th century. Marble. Basilica of St Apollinaris in Classe, Ravenna (Italy). Byzantine.
Besides the Celtic monuments to which we have already referred (menhirs, dolmens, etc.) there is very little that is original in the style of the Gaulish period and from the Roman invasion onwards, any traces of the romantic, which were, in any case, more a result of the rudimentary nature of life at the time than of a feeling for art, are swallowed up by the culture of the victorious Romans. The bathhouses, theatres, and arenas are all attributed indiscriminately to the Gauls and the Romans, and Gaulish furniture is so similar to the furniture used in Rome as to be indistinguishable from it. Frankish style is similarly insignificant. The Franks were busy fighting and a more civilised period only begins to flourish when peace returns. The evidence of this civilisation is to be found in the Christian monasteries built beside the tombs of the saints. Clovis’ reign was of no artistic importance but Dagobert had an abbey built at Saint-Denis and left us an armchair which bears his name, although there is very little to distinguish it from a curule chair! At the same time, gold and silver works with a peculiarly Byzantine flavour have been found dating from Charlemagne’s reign onwards. It seems that chests attributed to the Carolingian period decorated with ivory plaques showing mythical animals and using inlaid ivory and marquetry with different coloured woods inspired the arrangements used by Italian ivory craftsmen. What we shall witness next is the arrival in the West of a new art under the auspices of new religious aspirations.
The catacombs where the early Christians took refuge from the persecution of the Roman Emperors were to be the birthplace of this Christian art, which would evolve little by little away from the old thinking. Hot wax paintings, richly-sculpted sarcophagi and a wealth of tools, receptacles and so on bear witness to the momentum of this new world view, which would be marked by a use of allegory and symbolism borrowed, in particular, from Pagan thought. However, one distinguishes in the rough execution of their work, which was of a much poorer quality than that of Rome’s public buildings and imperial palaces, a thrust which was moving gradually away from those roots. When the vast Roman Empire tired of creating martyrs and inventing new forms of torture while its enemies expressed their faith through images of peace, happiness, unity, and hope, accepted the new faith, the images created in the catacombs began to decorate the walls of churches and basilicas. These images did not take on an identity entirely of their own until after the advent of Constantine when Christian art could safely develop inside these religious buildings.
At this point painting (sculpture was rather rare, found in the form of low reliefs on sarcophagi and was very similar in its themes to decorative painting) began to depict historical subjects, including Christ, the Virgin, the Apostles, Abraham and Moses, Jonah and Daniel, just as the artists of antiquity had depicted Perseus, Hercules and Theseus. It was not until basilicas had finally replaced profane buildings that Christians used images to celebrate their religion, through representations of their martyr’s victory. Justinian, who had recourse to the Greek artists who imported a style of architecture which paid homage to Constantinople into the West, established the Byzantine style.
The Byzantine style is essentially an eastern style. It speaks of India, Persia, and Syria – of Asia, in fact, and celebrates the wealth of detail and the magnificence of their decoration. Although the profusion of decoration found in the Byzantine style is less than tasteful, it has great character. In painting, figures stand out against a golden background and mosaic work has never been more widely used than it was during this period. Rich fabrics from Asia were also typical. These were painted or embroidered, covered with gold or silver leaf, precious stones, cabochons and large pieces of chased metal. Favourite motifs were flowers, animals, and ‘episodes from the life of Christ’. There might be up to six hundred figures on a tunic or cloak. Beds, seating, chests, vessels, and so on were made of delicately worked ebony, ivory, gold, silver, and bronze. This emphasis on luxury, seductive as it is, corrupted their taste and reflects the unusually free and pleasure-seeking manners of Byzantium. It was a time when wealth was a gateway to immorality and Byzantine art benefitted from the resulting splendour and pomp.
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