coral reefs of inland seas. The mountains of one period have disappeared by denudation or subsidence, while the mountains of the succeeding period have been rising from beneath the waves. The valleys, the ravines, and the mountain peaks, have been carved out and filled up again; and all the vegetable forms which clothe the earth and furnish food for the various classes of animals have been completely changed again and again.
Effect of Continental Changes on the Distribution of Animals.—It is impossible to exaggerate, or even adequately to conceive, the effect of these endless mutations on the animal world. Slowly but surely the whole population of living things must have been driven backward and forward from east to west, or from north to south, from one side of a continent or a hemisphere to the other. Owing to the remarkable continuity of all the land masses, animals and plants must have often been compelled to migrate into other continents, where in the struggle for existence under new conditions many would succumb; while such as were able to survive would constitute those wide-spread groups whose distribution often puzzles us. Owing to the repeated isolation of portions of continents for long periods, special forms of life would have time to be developed, which, when again brought into competition with the fauna from which they had been separated, would cause fresh struggles of ever increasing complexity, and thus lead to the development and preservation of every weapon, every habit, and every instinct, which could in any way conduce to the safety and preservation of the several species.
Changed Distribution proved by the Extinct Animals of Different Epochs.—We thus find that, while the inorganic world has been in a state of continual though very gradual change, the species of the organic world have also been slowly changing in form and in the localities they inhabit; and the records of these changes and these migrations are everywhere to be found, in the actual distribution of the species no less than in the fossil remains which are preserved in the rocks. Everywhere the animals which have most recently become extinct resemble more or less closely those which now live in the same country; and where there are exceptions to the rule, we can generally trace them to some changed conditions which have led to the extinction of certain types. But when we go a little further back, to the late or middle Tertiary deposits, we almost always find, along with forms which might have been the ancestors of some now living, others which are only now found in remote regions and often in distinct continents—clear indications of those extensive migrations which have ever been going on. Every large island contains in its animal inhabitants a record of the period when it was last separated from the adjacent continent, while some portions of existing continents still show by the comparative poverty and speciality of their animals that at no distant epoch they were cut off by arms of the sea and formed islands. If the geological record were more perfect, or even if we had as good a knowledge of that record in all parts of the world as we have in Europe and North America, we could arrive at much more accurate results than we are able to do with our present very imperfect knowledge of extinct forms of life; but even with our present scanty information we are able to throw much light upon the past history of our globe and its inhabitants, and can sketch out with confidence many of the changes they must have undergone.
Summary of Evidence for the General Permanence of Continents and Oceans.—As this question of the permanence of our continents or, rather, of the continental areas, lies at the root of all our inquiries into the past changes of the earth and its inhabitants, and as it is at present completely ignored by many writers, and even by naturalists of eminence, it will be well to summarise the various kinds of evidence which go to establish it.32 We know as a fact that all sedimentary deposits have been formed under water, but we also know that they were largely formed in lakes or inland seas, or near the coasts of continents or great islands, and that deposits uniform in character and more than 150 or 200 miles wide were rarely, if ever, formed at the same time. The further we go from the land the less rapidly deposition takes place, hence the great bulk of all the strata must have been formed near land. Some deposits are, it is true, continually forming in the midst of the great oceans, but these are chiefly organic and increase very slowly, and there is no proof that any part of the series of known geological formations exactly resembles them. Chalk, which is still believed to be such a deposit by many naturalists, has been shown, by its contained fossils, to be a comparatively shallow water formation—that is, one formed at a depth measured by hundreds rather than by thousands of fathoms. The nature of the formations composing all our continents also proves the continuity of those continents. Everywhere we find clearly marked shore and estuarine deposits, showing that every part of the existing land has in turn been on the sea-shore; and we also find in all periods lacustrine formations of considerable extent with remains of plants and land animals, proving the existence of continents or extensive lands, in which such lakes or estuaries could be formed. These lacustrine deposits can be traced back through every period, from the newer Tertiary to the Devonian and Cambrian, and in every continent which has been geologically explored; and thus complete the proof that our continents have been in existence under ever changing forms throughout the whole of that enormous lapse of time.
On the side of the oceans we have also a great weight of evidence in favour of their permanence and stability. In addition to their enormous depths and great extent, and the circumstance that the deposits now forming in them are distinct from anything found upon the land-surface, we have the extraordinary fact that the countless islands scattered over their whole area (with one or two exceptions only and those comparatively near to continental areas) never contain any Palæozoic or Secondary rocks—that is, have not preserved any fragments of the supposed ancient continents, nor of the deposits which must have resulted from their denudation during the whole period of their existence! The supposed exceptions are New Zealand and the Seychelles Islands, both situated near to continents and not really oceanic, leaving almost the whole of the vast areas of the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Southern oceans, without a solitary relic of the great islands or continents supposed to have sunk beneath their waves.
CHAPTER VII
CHANGES OF CLIMATE WHICH HAVE INFLUENCED THE DISPERSAL OF ORGANISMS: THE GLACIAL EPOCH
Proofs of the Recent Occurrence of a Glacial Epoch—Moraines—Travelled Blocks—Glacial Deposits of Scotland: the "Till"—Inferences from the Glacial Phenomena of Scotland—Glacial Phenomena of North America—Effects of the Glacial Epoch on Animal Life—Warm and Cold Periods—Palæontological Evidence of Alternate Cold and Warm Periods—Evidence of Interglacial Warm Periods on the Continent and in North America—Migrations and Extinctions of Organisms caused by the Glacial Epoch.
We have now to consider another set of physical revolutions which have profoundly affected the whole organic world. Besides the wonderful geological changes to which, as we have seen, all continents have been exposed, and which must, with extreme slowness, have brought about the greater features of the dispersal of animals and plants throughout the world, there has been also a long succession of climatal changes, which, though very slow and gradual when measured by centuries, may have sometimes been rapid as compared with the slow march of geological mutations.
These climatal changes may be divided into two classes, which have been thought to be the opposite phases of the same great phenomenon—cold or even glacial epochs in the Temperate zones on the one hand, and mild or even warm periods extending into the Arctic regions on the other. The evidence for both these changes having occurred is conclusive; and as they must be taken account of whenever we endeavour to explain the past migrations and actual distribution of the animal world, a brief outline of the more important facts and of the conclusions they lead to must be here given.
Proofs of the Recent Occurrence of a Glacial Epoch.—The phenomena that prove the recent occurrence of glacial epochs in the temperate regions are exceedingly varied, and extend over very wide areas. It will be well therefore to state, first, what those facts are as exhibited in our own country, referring afterwards to similar phenomena in other parts of the world.
Perhaps the most striking of all the evidences of glaciation are the grooved, scratched, or striated rocks. These occur abundantly in Scotland, Cumberland,
In a review of Mr. T. Mellard Reade's
