syllables.
1. English poetry, from the first constitution of literary Middle English to the present day, can best be scanned by a system of feet, or groups of syllables in two different values, which may be called for convenience long ( ̄ ) and short ( ̆ ).
Not all combinations actual.
2. The nature of these groups of syllables is determined by the usual mathematical laws of permutation; but some of them appear more frequently than others in English poetry, and some hardly occur at all.
Differences from "classical" feet.
3. Although, in the symbols of their constitution, these feet resemble those of the classical prosodies, it does not follow that they are identical with them, except mathematically,[25] the nature of the languages being different; and, in particular, their powers of combining in metre are far from being identical, so that combinations of feet which are successful in Greek and Latin need by no means be successful in English. Success is indeed almost limited to instances where the metrical constituents are restricted to iambs ( ̆ ̄ ), anapæsts ( ̆ ̆ ̄ ), and trochees ( ̄ ̆ ), with the spondee ( ̄ ̄ ) as an occasional ingredient.
The three usual kinds—iamb, trochee, anapæst.
4. The iamb ( ̆ ̄ ), the trochee ( ̄ ̆ ), and the anapæst ( ̆ ̆ ̄ ) are by far the commonest English feet; in fact, the great bulk of English poetry is composed of them.
The spondee.
5. The spondee ( ̄ ̄ ) is not so unusual as has sometimes been thought; but owing to the commonness of most syllables, especially in thesis, it may often be passed as an iamb, and sometimes as a trochee.
The dactyl.
6. The dactyl ( ̄ ̆ ̆ ), on the other hand, though observable enough in separate English words, does not seem to compound happily in English, its use being almost limited to that of a substitute for the trochee. Used in continuity, either singly or with other feet, it has a tendency, especially in lines of some length, to rearrange itself into anapæsts with anacrusis. In very short lines, however, this "tilt" has not always time to develop itself.
The pyrrhic.
7. The pyrrhic ( ̆ ̆ ) may occur in English, but is rarely wanted (see note above on spondee).
The tribrach.
8. The tribrach ( ̆ ̆ ̆ ), however, has become not unusual.
Others.
9. Other combinations (for names see Glossary) than these are certainly rare, and are perhaps never wanted in English verse, though they are plentiful in prose. (See Rule 41 and Glossary.)
§ B. Constitution of Feet
Quality or "quantity" in feet.
10. The quality, or contrast of quality, called "quantity," which fits English syllables for their places as long or short in a foot, is not uniform or constant.
Not necessarily "time,"
11. It does not necessarily depend on the amount of time taken to pronounce the syllable; though there is probably a tendency to lengthen or shorten this time according to the prosodic length or shortness required.
nor vowel "quantity."
12. It does not wholly depend on the usual quantity[26] of the vowel sound in the syllable; for long-sounding vowels are not very seldom shortened, and short-sounding ones are constantly made long.
Accumulated consonants,
13. An accumulation of consonants after the vowel will lengthen it prosodically, but need not necessarily do so.
or rhetorical stress,
14. Strong rhetorical stress will almost always lengthen if required.
or place in verse will quantify.
15. The place in verse, if cunningly managed by the poet, will lengthen or shorten.
Commonness of monosyllables.
16. All monosyllables are common, the articles being, however, least susceptible of lengthening, and the indefinite perhaps hardly at all.
§ C. Equivalence and Substitution
Substitution of equivalent feet.
17. The most important law of English prosody is that which permits and directs the interchange of certain of these feet with others, or, in technical language, the substitution of equivalent feet.
Its two laws.
18. This process of substitution is governed by two laws: one in a manner a priori, the other the result of experience only.
Confusion of base must be avoided.
19. Substitution must not take place in a batch of lines, or even (with rare exceptions) in a single line, to such an extent that the base of the metre can be mistaken.
(Of which the ear must judge.)
20. Even short of this result of confusion the ear must decide whether the substitution is allowable.
Certain substitutions are not eligible.
21. As a result of experience we find that the feet most suitable—if not alone suitable—as substitutes for the iamb—the commonest foot-staple—are the trochee, the anapæst, and the tribrach; that the dactyl substitutes well, if not too freely used, for the trochee.[27] These equivalences are reciprocal.
§ D. Pause
Variation of pause.
22. Next to equivalence, the most important and valuable engine in the constitution of English verses is the variation of the middle or internal pause.
Practically at discretion.
23. Except in very long lines—which always tend to pause themselves either at the middle or at two places more or less equidistant—there is no reason why the pause of an English line should not be at any syllable from the first to the penultimate, and
