and anthropology.
A variety of categories and labels of touristic experiences have emerged within the realm of alternative tourism that reflect both marketing differentiations and ideologically divergent forms of tourism. This includes (but is not limited to) nature, green, special interest, pro-poor, adventure, community-based, war and ecotourism. Many of these forms have caught the imagination of local communities, governments, international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the mainstream tourism industry itself, with a variety of such ‘alternative’ projects being actively promoted, especially in developing countries (Cohen, 1972; R.W. Butler, 1990; McGehee, 2002; Bowden, 2005). These projects have in part been used as definitional examples of alternative tourism in order to clarify the associated issues relating to touristic practices (Priporas & Kamenidou, 2003). However, there is currently debate worldwide concerning the benefits and costs of this type of tourism.
Given the divergent backgrounds and concerns of these individuals and organizations, it is not surprising that no universally agreed upon or widely adopted definition of alternative tourism is to be found, and few explicit links have been made between its different forms. It is not the purpose of this book to pursue the quest for an all-embracing definition of alternative tourism. It is important, however, to recognize that the diversity and range of tourism in fact emphasizes the need for a systematic approach to classifying the varied elements of the tourism experience (Pearce, 1989). In this case, we are focusing on volunteer tourism as the ideal type of alternative tourism.
Alternative Tourism
The approach this book takes places volunteer tourism firmly within the sphere of alternative tourism, all the while recognizing that this perspective is currently being heavily debated within the literature (Butcher, 2006; Coghlan, 2006; Tomazos & Butler, 2009a; Butcher, 2011). Some argue that there are examples of volunteer tourism in virtually every form of tourism, from mass to alternative (Butcher, 2011). Coghlan (2006) argues that while some see volunteer tourism as a distinct sector from ecotourism, she sees it as an extension of eco-tourism (Coghlan, 2006). Tomazos and Butler (2009b) take yet another perspective, suggesting that, as with ecotourism, volunteer tourism has moved into a niche of mainstream tourism. In answer to the debate, this chapter will theoretically and systematically analyse volunteer tourism while being mindful of the commodification of volunteer tourism that is currently occurring, while still arguing for the placement of volunteer tourism firmly within alternative tourism.
The emerging phenomenon of pro-poor tourism (PPT) outlined in the last chapter (Hall, 2007; Meyer, 2007; Goodwin, 2008; Harrison, 2008; Suntikul et al., 2009; Theerapappisit, 2009) is an example of alternative tourism that could benefit from and include volunteer tourism. A significant component of PPT is obviously oriented towards alleviating poverty. One mechanism that can contribute to poverty alleviation is volunteering. As a result, there is great potential for synergies between PPT and volunteer tourism when approached in a decommodified or alternative way.
In spite of its importance, the ambiguity of the conceptualization of alternative tourism is a major stumbling block toward the development of a concise yet inclusive definition (Smith & Eadington, 1997). A significant and often raised question in this respect is to what extent has the primacy of the dominant hegemony of commercialism led to misinterpretation by the industry and the inclusion of a range of experiences that may not relate to its original ideals that underpin alternative tourism. Nevertheless, a general understanding must be arrived at, as alternative tourism is not simply an activity but a philosophy as well (McGehee, 2002; Singh, 2004).
Situated in this respect, volunteer tourism research needs to develop a more comprehensive theoretical understanding, and hence enable the tourism industry to examine the provision of these types of experiences. It is suggested that a volunteer tourism experience falls under the auspices of an alternative tourism experience and is constructed from a number of varying and interdependent elements each of which overlap significantly. For conceptual clarity, these elements are explored as ecotourism, international volunteering and ‘serious leisure’. It is hoped that this initial structure will provide the basis from which to explore this area.
Ecotourism1 is essential in the understanding of both volunteer tourism and alternative tourism. Ecotourism is one specific element that influences the form of some volunteer experiences, particularly in relation to international tourists from developed countries that are visiting developing countries. It is not suggested, however, that all experiences had by volunteer tourists fall within what may be considered ecotourism, particularly as the definitions of ecotourism are far from conclusive.
International volunteering traditionally consists of individuals volunteering away from their home countries for periods from 3 months to 2 years with agencies that provide assistance to primarily developing countries. In keeping with the UN definition of volunteering (UN Volunteers Report, 2001), international volunteering consists of activities that are not undertaken for financial reward, are undertaken on behalf of an individual’s own free will, and should benefit someone other than the volunteer (although they recognize the benefits to the volunteer as well). International volunteer tourism has altered and expanded the definition to include shorter periods and more extensive travel.
Stebbins first coined the phrase ‘serious leisure’ in 1992 and suggests serious leisure is the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist or volunteer activity that is sufficiently substantial and interesting for the participant to find a career there in the acquisition and expression of its specific skills and knowledge (1992: 264). The ideas that surround serious leisure enable an analysis of international volunteering, framing this form of travel beyond the mere hedonistic to contain elements of altruism and self-development.
Stebbins (1992), in his consideration of serious leisure, lists ‘career volunteering’ as an example, in that it ‘is a recurrent, skill and knowledge-based activity in which people can have a career in a special social world’ (1992: 264). Stebbins’ analysis of leisure is such that if it is to become an important part of peoples’ lives allowing them to find ‘personal fulfilment, identity enhancement, and self-expression’ (1992: 253), then potentially leisure takes a more serious form in people’s lives, and the way they respond to it.
If it is possible to identify how alternative tourism organizations relate to the larger tourism industry itself — and specifically here, how analysis of enterprises such as volunteer tourism can provide an understanding of the components that make up an alternative tourism experience — then the potential exists to provide experiences that go beyond the defined boundaries of mass tourism (MacCannell, 1976, 1992; Rojek, 1993; Urry, 2002). These experiences have the potential to change the focus of tourism for both visitor and host community (Kutay, 1990: 38). In other words, volunteer tourism could offer a new mechanism for the tourism industry in creating approaches to address development and sustainability issues.
It is hoped that in exploring the specificity of a particular tourist experience in depth, it may be possible to provide an understanding of not only the significant divergences and convergences that exist between mass tourism and alternative tourism, but also the subtle nuances that subtend these tourist experiences. Therefore, it is not simply a matter of differentiating, in a binary fashion, between a general category of tourism and the derivation of niche elements within it. As MacCannell (1992: 1) notes: ‘[T]ourism is not just an aggregate of merely commercial activities; it is also an ideological framing of history, nature and tradition; a framing that has the power to reshape culture and nature to its own needs’.
In differentiating the volunteer tourism experience from both mass or mainstream tourism and from the conceptualization of ‘alternative tourism’ as identified in the literature, it is argued here that the conceptual basis underlying the analysis of tourism2
