is grown mainly in the areas of Imbabura, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Carchi, Tungurahua, Loja, Latacunga, Ambato and Cuenca.
3.3.5 Argentina
In Argentina, the crop is grown in isolation in Jujuy and Salta. It is also cultivated in the Calchaquíes valleys of Tucumán (Gallardo and Gonzalez, 1992).
3.3.6 Colombia
The crop is grown in the area of Ipiales, Puesres, Contadero, Cordova, San Juan, Mocondino and Pasto.
3.4 The European Experiment
The main breeding goals in Europe were adaptation to local climatic conditions, improvement of the agronomic performance as a seed crop with respect to early maturity, uniformity, seed yield and seed weight, as well as qualitative research on starch, protein and saponin content in the seeds (Risi and Galwey, 1989b; Jacobsen and Stølen, 1993; Limburg and Mastebroek, 1997; Mastebroek and Limburg, 1997; Mastebroek et al., 2002). Research in Sweden and Denmark concentrated on breeding for fodder quality (Carlsson, 1980; Haaber, 1991).
Quinoa was introduced to England in the 1970s and to Denmark shortly after. In 1993, a project titled ‘Quinoa: a multipurpose crop for EC’s agricultural diversification’ was initiated in the European Union (Jacobsen, 2003). The project envisaged setting up laboratories in Scotland and France, and field trials in England, Denmark, the Netherlands and Italy. Quinoa has been cultivated in Denmark on a small-scale and experimental basis since the late 1980s. Trials in Denmark have demonstrated seed yields of 2–3 t/ha with 12–16% protein and 6–8% oil contents. Seed yields, however, have varied considerably between years and locations, because the establishment of the crop, weed control, harvest and post-harvest techniques have not yet been optimized. Quinoa’s experiment in Polish conditions seems to be satisfactory (Gęsiński and Kwiatkowska, 1999a, 1999b; Gęsiński, 2000, 2001). Field trials of 24 quinoa cultivars were conducted in north-west Poland in 1998 (Gęsiński, 2001). Some cultivars showed good potential for cultivation under the climatic and soil conditions in Poland despite being sown 2 months after the supposed optimal date. Field examinations of American and European cultivars in 1999–2001 at Chrzastowo (Poland) have revealed that the European cultivar had a short compact inflorescence with a short flowering period, reaching 120 cm as compared to the American cultivar that showed a slower growth, loose long inflorescence and long period of flowering (Gęsiński, 2006). The study concluded that adequate growth, the course of flowering and a stable yield of the European cultivar make the group ideal for cultivation under Polish conditions.
In Italy and Greece, Danish quinoa has given the best yield. In Greece the suitability of grain quinoa for agriculture has been experimentally tested since 1995 (Karyotis et al., 1996, Iliadis et al., 1997). Field experiments were carried out to test the adaptation of quinoa to Greek soils in loamy, well-drained soils classified as ‘Inceptisol’ and in heavy textured soils, classified as ‘Vertrisol’. The results showed that a wide range of soils seem to be suitable for cultivation of quinoa. Heavy soils could be used for cultivation of the crop, even at pH values as high as 7.5. Quinoa has also been evaluated in Sweden as a source for leaf protein concentrate (Carlsson, 1980; Carlsson et al., 1984). The suitability of quinoa for southern Italy was evaluated in Vitulazio, Italy in a 2-year field trial (2006–2007) under rain-fed conditions (Pulvento et al., 2010). Two quinoa genotypes, KVLQ520Y and Regalona Baer, were compared for yield and two sowing dates. The results showed that April was the best sowing time for quinoa in the typical Mediterranean region. Of the two genotypes, Regalona Baer recorded better growth and productivity, apparently being more tolerant to abiotic stress (high temperatures associated with water stress). Chemical analyses reveal the potential of quinoa seed as a valuable ingredient in the preparation of cereal foods, having improved nutritional characteristics.
3.5 North America
In the USA, quinoa represents one of the relatively few successful introductions of a new food plant. Quinoa has been cultivated in the USA since the early 1980s and commercially produced since the mid-1980s in the Colorado Rockies, especially in the San Luis Valley. The first commercial crop was produced in Colorado in 1987 on five farms after a processing facility was provided by Pillsbury Company to remove saponins from the pericarp (Oelke et al., 1992). About a dozen ecotypes were selected from various regions of South America that had characteristics matching the high, semi-arid mountain valleys and plains of Colorado (Cusack, 1984). Most of the quinoa varieties seemed to be well adapted to high altitudes and cool temperatures. Seed yield at 2000 m above sea level in Colorado was 1000 kg/ha. The North American Quinoa Producers Association was formed in 1988 and a small processing plant was started for the crop produced in the area. Production has also been attempted in California, New Mexico, Oregon and Washington.
In other parts of the US, quinoa has been successfully grown at high elevations; at lower elevations considerable pollen sterility and poor seed set has been observed (Bhardwaj et al., 1996). The quinoa cultivars adapted for production at elevations above 2300 m in Colorado failed to produce viable seeds at Moscow, Idaho (Kephart et al., 1990). In North Dakota, good stands of the crop were obtained at three southern locations, but serious insect problems were encountered in these areas (Berti and Schneiter, 1993). In 1992–93, quinoa was grown near Blacksburg and at the Northern Piedmont Agricultural Experiment Station in Orange County (Bhardwaj et al., 1996). The average seed yield at the Blacksburg location was 2804 kg/ha. However, in 1992 seed set did not occur, probably due to the warm weather. In 2010, 44 varieties of quinoa representing a broad diversity of regions and environmental conditions were grown in three locations in Washington State (Port Townsend, Olympia and Pullman). Data were collected for traits like emergence, aphid resistance, plant height, lodging and grain maturity. Of these 44 varieties, 11 superior varieties were chosen for inclusion in larger scale variety × nitrogen fertility trials in Pullman in 2011. These 11 varieties were also evaluated in the greenhouse under three different nitrogen regimes. The results of these detailed trials are awaited.
In the late 1980s/early 1990s, some farmers in Alberta successfully grew quinoa. Research at the Crop Diversification Centre South in Brooks, Alberta has demonstrated that quinoa can be successfully grown in Southern Alberta (AAFRD, 2005). The north-eastern Saskatchewan region in Canada resembles the Andean region in climate and is most suitable for cultivation of quinoa. The Northern Quinoa Company (NQC) is a specialty grain and food processing company located at Kamsack, Saskatchewan, Canada. In Saskatchewan, yields are said to be highly variable, and can be up to 2000 lb per acre. In this area the average yield over the 2000–2004 season was said to be in the range 750–1250 lb per acre. In terms of quality, the quinoa crop in Saskatchewan is somewhat smaller and darker in colour than the South American exports. Quinoa is currently grown in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, about 80% grown organically. Approximately 1600 acres of quinoa was grown in Saskatchewan in 2005, primarily to supply the NQC in Kamsack (AAFRD, 2005). Quinoa could successfully be adapted to the Canadian Prairies because it was known that the crop has also done well in field trials in Northern Michigan, where it is not the elevation, but the temperature that is critical to the proper development of the quinoa plant.
3.6 Quinoa and Africa
Quinoa has been field tested in Kenya and the initial results indicate a high seed yield, comparable to that in the Andean region (Mujica et al., 2001). All the quinoa cultivars matured in the Kenyan conditions, although the growth period was shorter (65–98 days). In Kenya, seed yields up to 9 t/ha and biomass yields up to 15 t/ha have been obtained. The late cultivars from Colombia and the inter-Andean valleys gave the highest yield. This is important for Kenya, since it is a primary rural economy
