less than a quarter of West Papua's population fell under any sort of administrative control, by 1961 the total had risen to two thirds, with 52 percent of government positions (mainly at the lower levels, of course) filled by Papuans and Melanesians.
President Sukarno and the Indonesian nation viewed these Dutch activities with dismay but at first could do little but make vociferous demands that Holland leave. To make matters worse, Dutch elections held in May of 1959 put into power the most conservative and uncompromising coalition since the war.
Early 1960s: the 'Irian problem'
It has often been written that Sukarno focused on the "Irian problem" to rally his nation behind him and draw attention away from pressing domestic problems. Economic conditions in newly independent Indonesia were troubling, and it was only on the strength of Sukarno's personal charisma and oratory that he was able to maintain the delicate balancing act that kept the Army, the Muslims and the Communists in check. But regardless of his motives, Indonesians were very much behind him on the Irian issue.
Sukarno at first tried to work within the United Nations to resolve the Irian question by diplomatic means. His appeal failed, in part because Indonesia was receiving Soviet military aid and the growing strength of the Indonesian communist party scared off potential western allies. When the United Nations rejected Sukarno's demands, he pulled out of the body and nationalized all remaining Dutch-owned businesses.
Failed diplomacy left only one option—the military. Organized by General Suharto, who was given widespread powers as major-general early in 1962, Indonesia began a campaign to infiltrate 1,500 troops into West Papua in order to spur the villagers to rebellion. The campaign was a resounding failure, but it showed Indonesia's determination.
While sporadic fighting continued, Indonesia kept up the diplomatic pressure. The key to her eventual success was the United States. Fearing that a protracted military action against the Dutch would draw Indonesia even further into the Soviet fold, the Americans finally decided to support Indonesia in its claim to West Papua.
The 'Act of Free Choice'
Soon, Holland saw her only alternatives as an escalating war without U.S. or European support, or relinquishment of West New Guinea. Following mediation talks in the United States, the so-called New York Agreement of 1962 provided for a U.N. transition team to administer West New Guinea in preparation for an eventual plebiscite, the "Act of Free Choice." In 1963 the U.N. handed the territory over to the Indonesians, and it became Irian Barat (West Irian).
In 1969, instead of a referendum, the Indonesian government chose some 1,000 representatives who eventually voted unanimously to join the republic, and in August of 1969, Irian Barat formally joined Indonesia. In 1973, President Suharto officially renamed the province: Irian Jaya, or '"Victorious Irian." The methods chosen by the Indonesian government have been often criticized, but considering the state of affairs in West Papua at the time, it would have been difficult to administer a true plebiscite.
The Indonesianization of West New Guinea did not progress smoothly. In 1967, aircraft were used against Arfak tribesmen near Manokwari and rebellions broke out on Biak and around Enarotali, near the Paniai Lakes. And a number of early Indonesian government policies were misguided—such as Operasi Koteka, designed to get the highlanders to quit wearing their penis sheaths.
Dissatisfaction led to local unrest, and in areas an independence movement arose: the Organisasi Papua Merdeka ("Free Papua Movement"). The OPM was formed as the result of blunt actions by the government and unrealistic expectations of self-rule, fanned by the Dutch. When the Dutch saw the tenability of their position in West Papua fading, they quickly set up elected councils and other trappings of self-rule—with the full knowledge that Indonesian rule was inevitable, and perhaps even desirable. Today, military commanders are still reluctant to open certain areas of West Papua to tourism because of OPM activity.
One of the most controversial of Indonesia's West Papuan policies has been its transmigration program, begun in the 1960s, wherein the government has been relocating people from overpopulated Java to Sumatra, Kalimantan (Borneo), Sulawesi (Celebes) and West Papua.
Initially, transmigration encountered some problems, such as relocating Javanese rice farmers on land that was used as a hunting and gathering ground by the local population. Moreover, the land was often not even fertile enough to grow rice. The government now takes traditional land rights into account when settling transmigrants, and the sites are chosen with greater care. It has also dramatically scaled down the program.
A more recent and encouraging change, initiated in early 2000 by the new government of President Wahid, has been to change the name of Irian Jaya to West Papua.
While most of West Papua's infrastructure is lacking, there are several areas in this province with more than adequate facilities, including accommodations and transportation, and basic tourism infrastructure.
Regular air services are an important part of West Papua's modernization. This Merpati Twin-Otter is at the Karubaga Airstrip.
The popular "Base G" beach, just north of Jayapura, takes its name from a World War II Allied base. Although deserted here, it is a very popular site with Jayapurans on weekends.
A dancer from the island of Numfor, a short hop from Biak. Numfor is a beautiful, and rarely visited island.
PART II
Biak and
the North
Jayapura, on the north coast of West Papua, and the large islands north of Cenderawasih Bay are the easiest parts of West Papua to visit, with well-developed communications and transportation networks, and plenty of hotels and restaurants to choose from.
Biak, formerly the first Indonesian stop for travelers flying Garuda Indonesia from the United States, was for most a groggy refueling break on the way to Bali or Java. But Biak, and neighboring Supiori, Numfor and Yapen Islands, are charming places to visit in their own right.
Biak is the best-known of the former Schouten Islands, and the most populated. The town has some lively markets, and an interesting harbor. Inland, one can visit the eerie caves where Japanese soldiers hid during World War II, and a small museum full of relics. Further out from the town, one encounters beautiful waterfalls and reefs.
The Padaido Islands, which dot the sea southeast of Biak, are ringed with coral and offer fine snorkeling in perhaps the richest and most unspoiled reefs in all of Indonesia.
For secluded beaches and near-shore snorkeling, head to nearby Numfor, a beautiful and lightly populated island. Thickly forested Yapen looms just across the water south of Biak. If the weather is good, one can see it clearly from the Biak harbor. The island's forests host the beautiful birds of paradise, and the shores have numerous sandy coves fine for swimming and snorkeling.
Jayapura, West Papua's capital and largest city, began its life as a Dutch port and
