Red Cliffs but he was never able to conquer the southern kingdoms.
Zhuge Liang and Cao Cao are still famous today for their roles as the principal characters in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms written by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century. The novel is part history and part myth. It tells the story of the break-up of the Han Dynasty, the division of China into three kingdoms, Shu, Wu and Wei, and the struggles of Zhuge Liang and Cao Cao to reunite the country. The stories portrayed are well known by the Chinese as there have been countless adaptations, movies, TV series, video games and comic books based on the novel.
LI BAI AND DU FU
Li Bai (701–262 CE) is the the most famous poet in Chinese history. He is as well known in China as Shakespeare is in the Western world. Sometimes referred to as the ‘banished immortal’, he was considered a poetic genius who spent most of his life wandering, indulging in wine and writing poetry. Every schoolboy and girl in China memorizes a few of his poems. He was heavily influenced by Daoism and Buddhism.
Along with Li Bai, Du Fu (712–770 CE) is a household name in China. He is also a Tang Dynasty poet who was revered for his ability to master all forms of poetry. He was a Confucian who lived in a time of political turmoil. He spent much of his life either working for the imperial court or defending imperial rule when in exile. He is sometimes called the ‘poet historian’ as many of his poems are about daily life and current events during his time.
ADMIRAL ZHENG HE
Zheng He (1371–1433) was a palace eunuch, diplomat, explorer and mariner during the Ming Dynasty who rose to the ranks of Admiral. Between 1405 and 1433 he commanded large expeditions that explored and traded with countries in Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East and East Africa. He was undoubtedly China’s greatest maritime figure. At a time when maritime exploration was in its infancy in the West, and nearly a century before Columbus set sail for the New World, Admiral Zheng commanded fleets of hundreds of ships manned by thousands of sailors. His first voyage left Suzhou in 1405 with 317 ships and 28,000 crewmen. Some of his ships were so large that the combined fleets of Columbus and Vasco da Gama could fit on the deck of a single ship in Zheng’s armada. During his various voyages, he presented gifts of gold, silver, silk and porcelain, and in return received such exotic gifts as ivory, ostriches, camels, zebras and even a giraffe. It is speculated that the purpose of his voyages was to expand the Chinese empire by creating tributary states.
Drawing of the poet Du Fu.
Painting of Li Bai by Liang K’ai called 'Li Po Chanting a Poem'.
Detail of Chinese Running Style calligraphy.
HIGHLIGHTS OF CHINESE HISTORY
During the Warring States Period (481–221 BCE), China was ruled by seven semi-independent kings. Each of their kingdoms had its own language, customs and cultural practices. The Qin kingdom in western China along the Wei River, a tributary of the Yellow River, began conquering its neighboring kingdoms. In 221 BCE, the Qin successfully conquered the other six kingdoms and, for the first time, unified the country under central rule.
The king of Qin declared himself Qin Shi Huang or the first emperor of Qin. The name of this new unified kingdom, Qin, was eventually Latinized as ‘China’ or China. The emperor of Qin instituted several changes, including a common monetary system. He also built roads and standardized axle widths, established a common language and writing system and a strong central rule with a well-developed bureaucracy. The dynasty was short-lived, however, as the emperor ruthlessly suppressed dissent, imposed heavy taxes, distrusted the scholar class (even burning books and killing intellectuals who he considered a threat to his rule), and was obsessed with finding a means to immortality. Before the emperor died, he conscripted tens of thousands of workers to build a tomb that included thousands of lifelike terracotta warriors.
An 18th-century depiction of Emperor Qin Shi Huang's imperial tour across his empire.
Terracotta warriors guarding the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang (r. 221–210 BCE).
THE HAN DYNASTY
Ethnic Chinese today call themselves Han after the Han Dynasty. The Han period is considered one of the most important in China’s history, as it was a time when a political system was established that remained intact, with some modifications, until the 20th century. Confucianism became the governing philosophy and helped shape the very character of the Chinese people. This was also a time of great prosperity. During the later part of the Han Dynasty, the capital of Luoyang housed half a million people, the largest city in the world at that time.
One very important development was the examination system whereby scholars could join the ruling elite based on merit. These exams were based on the Confucian Classics, a series of five books that included poetry and history, political speeches and guidelines for ritual practice established by Confucius and his later followers. Those who scored the highest in the exams were given jobs of more importance, such us mayors, governors, even prime minister, and personal aids to the emperor. This system of meritocracy was used in China all the way up to the 20th century.
TANG AND SONG DYNASTIES
The capital of the Tang Dynasty, Chang’an (present-day Xi’an), was the largest city in the world. This was a high point in Chinese civilization, even surpassing the glories of the Han Dynasty. It was a golden age of literature, art, religion and cosmopolitan culture. The Tang Dynasty is best known for its flowering of Chinese poetry. China’s most revered poets—Li Bai, Du Fu and Wang Wei—wrote during this illustrious period. Today in China people still study these Tang Dynasty poems and learn to write in these forms. An 18th-century anthology of Tang poetry has become a treasured book familiar to all educated Chinese. Landscape painting also developed and became important during this time.
| MAJOR PERIODS IN CHINESE HISTORY | |
| Shang Dynasty 1650–1045 BCE | The beginning of Chinese civilization and recorded history; walled cities, writing system, practice of divination, bronze technology, horse-drawn chariots. |
| Zhou Dynasty 1045–256 BCE | Political and social system ruled by the Zhou royal house based on hierarchy; power and land bestowed on aristocratic families, similar to Europe’s feudal system; power broke down among the semi-feudal states during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. |
| Qin Dynasty 221–206 BCE | The kingdom of Qin conquers the other six kingdoms that fought for power during the Warring States Period and China is unified for the first time; capital near present-day Xi’an. |
| Han Dynasty 206 BCE–220 CE | Modified and established the foundation for aristocratic rule; Confucianism becomes orthodox and the civil service examination system was introduced where civil servants were selected through merit; capitals established in modern-day Xi’an, then in modern-day Luoyang. |
| Six Dynasties 220–589 CE | The empire is fragmented; the north is ruled by non-Chinese invaders, the south ruled by successive Chinese dynasties; Buddhism is introduced from India and spreads; several influential forms of religious Daoism emerge. |
| Sui Dynasty 581–618 CE | China reunified;
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