safety, belonging, and esteem within a community, we are engaged and attentive. Inspiration and motivation, however, occur only when students have the opportunity to meet goals related to self-actualization and connection to something greater than self. Stated differently, students must answer “Yes” to the level 5 and level 6 questions as well as the questions for levels 1 through 4 to be truly motivated and inspired in class. Thus, effectively motivating and inspiring students relies on a thorough understanding of all the levels of the hierarchy. Here, we present a brief description of the research and theory behind each level, beginning with the top level of the hierarchy.
Connection to Something Greater Than Self
Connection to something greater than self represents the topmost level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Theoretically, this is the highest level of human motivation and inspiration. While not articulated in Maslow’s (1943, 1954) original hierarchy of needs, he made reference to this sixth level in later writings (1969, 1979). To differentiate connection to something greater than self from self-actualization, Maslow defined needs and goals related to self-actualization as an individual’s inclination to fulfill his or her own potential. Needs and goals related to a connection to something greater than self represented an individual’s desire for a higher purpose and to help others move up the hierarchy of needs. In Maslow’s (1969) own words:
The fully developed (and very fortunate) human being, working under the best conditions tends to be motivated by values which transcend his self. They are not selfish anymore in the old sense of that term…. It has transcended the geographical limitations of the self. (p. 4)
Maslow was not the first person to articulate this difference. In Victor Frankl’s (1959/2006) famous work, Man’s Search for Meaning, he reflected upon the lessons learned during his time in Auschwitz during World War II and noted, “The true meaning of life is to be discovered in the world rather than within man or his own psyche” (p. 110). Frankl emphasized humans’ proclivity to seek a connection to something greater than self, and it is likely that Maslow’s creation of a sixth level of his hierarchy was influenced by Frankl’s work.
Figure 1.2: The hierarchy of goals as it relates to inspiration, motivation, engagement, and attention.
Regardless of its origins, Maslow (1969) called the state of feeling a connection to something greater than self transcendence, which he associated with a sensation of oneness with the world and moments of understanding outside of ordinary experience. As individuals repeatedly fulfill their goals at this level, they often also experience humility, wisdom, or a creative outpouring. Once individuals experience transcendence, they will attempt to prolong that state. However, only a small percent of the population ever truly sustains this connection over a long period of time; Mother Teresa, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King Jr. might be considered examples of those who have. This is not to minimize the impact that brief experiences of connection to something greater than self can have on an individual. Indeed, even if they are rare or not sustained for long, we should seek out and cherish such moments when they occur.
Self-Actualization
Maslow (1943) defined needs and goals related to self-actualization as “the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming” (p. 382). In other words, they represent the desire to pursue self-identified goals. Goals related to self-actualization can be described as global motivators, as individuals will work tirelessly to achieve goals they have personally identified as important. Inherent in their definition, needs and goals related to self-actualization vary widely from individual to individual. For example, in order for one student to experience self-actualization, he may need to express himself creatively through visual art or music, whereas another student might be driven to reach her potential as an athlete. Regardless of the focus of the goals, all efforts to this end involve “the full use and exploitation of talents, capabilities, [and] potentialities” (Maslow, 1954, p. 150).
It is important to note that self-actualization marks a transition within Maslow’s hierarchy from needs and goals related to deficiency to those of personal growth. The lower four levels—(1) physiology, (2) safety, (3) belonging, and (4) esteem within a community—define needs an individual must meet in order to avoid negative physical or psychological sensations. On the other hand, needs and goals related to self-actualization and connection to something greater than self articulate an individual’s desire for personal growth. It is not coincidental that the goals at these higher levels also mark a shift from engagement and attention to inspiration and motivation, as shown in figure 1.2 (page 5).
Esteem Within a Community
Individuals’ esteem within a community is highly dependent on their own self-representations or self-concept—the way they think about themselves. Researchers generally distinguish between self-esteem, or “global self-representations,” and “specific representations, such as academic self-concept” (Peixoto & Almeida, 2010, p. 158). For example, a student’s academic self-concept could differ drastically from his athletic self-concept, as he might excel on the racetrack or baseball diamond but struggle during school hours. Students’ academic self-concepts can be even further divided: a student may have a high self-concept for her abilities in mathematics and science but a lower self-concept for her abilities related to language arts or history. These specific self-concepts contribute to students’ esteem as a whole. As Cynthia G. Scott, Gerald C. Murray, Carol Mertens, and E. Richard Dustin (1996) explained:
Both academically and interpersonally, students’ self-esteem is affected daily by evaluations not only from school personnel but also from peers and family members. Because of the multitude of academic and social roles that students assume, they must constantly evaluate and reevaluate their knowledge and skills and compare them to others. (pp. 286–287)
Thus, recognizing the various communities in which students regularly participate can be useful when trying to understand and meet their esteem needs.
Maslow (1943) postulated that esteem can emanate from two sources: (1) self-esteem and (2) esteem from others. Needs related to self-esteem, he posited, involve “the desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for confidence in the face of the world, and for independence and freedom” (p. 381), while esteem from others involves a “desire for reputation or prestige … recognition, attention, importance or appreciation” (p. 382). It is important to note, however, that people tend to consider self-esteem a higher version of esteem derived from others, as esteem derived from others is “dependent on external validation,” which can “create stress, hostility, and conflict” (Crocker, 2002, p. 608).
As stated previously, esteem within a community is a type of deficiency motivation. When individuals’ esteem needs are not met, they will focus on fulfilling those needs before moving on to needs related to personal growth (self-actualization and connection to something greater than self). As such, regardless of whether esteem is derived from the self or from others, a sense of esteem is critical to confidence and, when underdeveloped, has been correlated with psychological issues such as depression (Sowislo & Orth, 2013).
Belonging
Needs and goals related to belonging drive the social behaviors of humans and compel us to seek out fulfilling, affectionate relationships with others. In order for belonging needs to be met, individuals’ relationships must be two-directional and elicit feelings of acceptance and connectedness.
The need to belong is so important that, when unfilled, it can have drastic negative effects
