Paul’s broader concern is to present his attitude towards service as a model for the Corinthians to imitate (1 Cor 11:1), so that they will learn to give preference to the needs of others over their own needs (1 Cor 8:1b, 13; 10:24, 33).211 To drive home this principle, Paul describes the way he puts aside his own rights as an apostle for the sake of the people he is serving. The line of thought is an expanded form of what was seen in 1 Thess 2:6–7. First, Paul draws upon his apostleship and his revelation from Christ as potential reasons for exercising his rights in ministry (1 Cor 9:1). Both of these items carry connotations of authority and distinction and help supply Paul a standing equal to that of the other apostles, at least according to a picture of apostleship that is flexible enough to encompass more than just the original twelve apostles. To this list he adds his specific apostolic ministry to the Corinthian church and suggests that the fruitfulness of this ministry confirms Paul’s apostolic calling (9:2). The next step in his argument is to show that he sets aside rights that would be expected to accompany the ministry of apostleship (see 9:12, 15, 19–27). These rights include eating and drinking whatever he desires (with reference to his statements about idolatry in 8:13), getting married, and relying on the financial support of others instead of working (9:4–6). Paul even refers specifically to the marriages of other apostles in order to demonstrate that other apostles exercise these rights (9:5). From the structure and wording of Paul’s argument, it is clear that he considers himself an apostle on par with others designated with that title, and that there is both common ground and independence in Paul’s leadership relationship with the other apostles.
A similar pattern surfaces in 1 Cor 15:1–11. In order to build the doctrine of the believer’s resurrection upon truth already accepted by the Corinthian church, Paul draws upon early Christian tradition (15:3). In 15:1 Paul identifies this tradition as being consistent with his gospel. Paul sees no divergence between his gospel and the core teaching of the church as a whole.
Part of this central teaching Paul had received and proclaimed is a recounting of the resurrection appearances of Christ. The first witnesses listed are Cephas and the other original apostles (15:5), followed by a larger group of disciples, James, and “all of the apostles” (15:6–7).212 Paul then adds himself to this list, placing his own encounter with the risen Christ at the same level as those of the people mentioned previously.213 The sense of Paul’s self-identification as “one untimely born” (ἔκτρωμα) has been interpreted in various ways.214 It may refer to the fact that Christ’s appearance to Paul and his appointment of Paul as an apostle occurred at an atypical time and in an atypical way, since Paul had not seen nor been commissioned by Christ during his earthly ministry.215 Or the term may highlight Paul’s unworthiness because of his persecution of the church.216 In either case, Paul’s history placed him at a perceived disadvantage compared to the other apostles. Paul expands upon this perceived deficiency (note the use of the explanatory γάρ) by emphasizing his unworthiness to be called an apostle (εἰμὶ ὁ ἐλάχιστος τῶν ἀποστόλων ὅ οὐκ εἰμὶ ἱκανὸς καλεῖσθαι ἀπόστολος). This depiction appears at first glance to elevate the other apostles above Paul, but the characterization has less to do with Paul’s current status and more to do with his past actions. Paul confirms this perception by recalling his past as a persecutor of the church and the subsequent grace God bestowed on him in choosing him for apostleship (1 Cor 15:9–10a). The emphasis is on Paul’s surprising inclusion among those called to apostleship.217
In Paul’s present ministry, his pattern of hard and fruitful work, propelled by God’s grace, serves to reinforce Paul’s standing alongside the other apostles (15:10b). God’s surprising choice of Paul as a minister did not bring a deficient outcome (οὐ κενὴ ἐγενήθη), which implies that Paul had enjoyed a fruitful ministry. Paul is thus able to conclude this section of the argument with the assertion that his preaching is equivalent to that of the other apostles (15:11). This passage on the whole reveals an attitude of respect and cooperation towards the other apostles. It also numbers Paul among the apostles. Though Paul’s past should disqualify him from the honor of apostolic ministry, he is able to vouch for the full legitimacy of his apostleship by virtue of Christ’s appearance to him and through appeal to his steadfast and fruitful service enabled by God’s gracious work through him.
The pendulum swings back towards an assertion of Paul’s authority in 2 Cor 11:5. The issue needing defense in 2 Cor 10–13 is that authentic ministry is founded upon God’s powerful work through human weakness, rather than upon the talents of polished and imposing leaders. Paul engages in his opponents’ own foolish style of argument (11:1) by building up his own credentials before setting them aside in favor of God’s use of his suffering and weakness. As part of the preliminary promotion of his authority, Paul contends for his equality with the other apostles in 2 Cor 11:5. Scholars disagree as to whether the (οἱ ὑπερλίαν ἀπόστολοι) in 11:5 (and 12:11) are the same people as the pseudo-apostles of 11:13 (also implied in 11:4). Some scholars, pointing out that the references occur in the same passage, see the two labels as referring to the same false teachers.218 Others discern that the two groups are different.219 The second option is to be preferred, since the two labels are used with different connotations for different purposes. The pseudo-apostles are flatly denounced, while the premier apostles are used in comparison to Paul’s own authority.220 Paul’s argument in 2 Cor 11:4–5 is that the Corinthian believers need to accept his teaching in a way that does justice to his authority. If they receive heterodox teaching with such enthusiasm (11:4, with reference to false apostles), they should welcome the teaching of a genuine apostle all the more (11:5, with reference to legitimate apostles).
Paul revisits the same line of thought in 2 Cor 12:11–12, admitting to resort to foolishness again. The wording of 2 Cor 12:11 practically repeats the wording of 2 Cor 11:5. Paul’s authority should be considered as being on par with the authority of even the most prominent apostles (again most likely corresponding to the leaders of reputation in Gal 2:1–10). Paul supports this position by directing the Corinthians’ attention to the signs of an apostle that God displayed in Paul’s ministry.221 The observation from 2 Cor 11:5 and 12:11–12 that is most pertinent to this book is that Paul is willing to highlight and defend his apostleship and equality with other apostles for the sake of ensuring that his gospel receives a proper hearing. The tone is accordingly very similar to the tone in Galatians 1:1—2:10.
Finally, in Rom 11:13 Paul mentions his apostleship to the Gentiles in the midst of a discussion about God’s purposes for the Jews in bringing salvation to the Gentiles. This passage aligns well with the delineation of Paul’s apostolic ministry in Gal 2:8, where Paul’s authority among the Gentiles was equated to Peter’s authority among the Jews. Paul shares the name “apostle” with other early apostles and shares their basic message. Where he is distinct, however, is in his commissioning to the Gentiles. This difference is reflected in Paul’s gospel as well, since he must highlight and defend the full applicability of Christ’s work to Gentiles apart from the Law (see Rom 3:21, 28).
The testimony from the preceding passages produces a coherent composite picture of Paul’s apostleship. The emphasis differs somewhat in the various passages, yet these divergences can be explained best by looking at the two passages that are most pronounced in their differences, 1 Cor 15:1–11 and Gal 1:1—2:10. The tone and balance of 1 Cor 15:1–11 as compared to Gal 1:1—2:10 creates no contradiction in Paul’s understanding of his apostleship and relationship to tradition.
Both passages uphold both the chronological priority of the earlier apostles and the full membership of Paul in their number. The occasion behind Gal 1:1—2:10 required a stronger emphasis on Paul’s independent authority, since the reception of his gospel among the Gentiles was at stake, whereas in 1 Cor 15:1–11, Paul’s purposes are better served by accentuating common ground and respect for the first apostles and their teaching.222
Both passages also group Paul’s revealed gospel with the recognized teaching of the early church. The teaching affirmed in 1 Cor 15:3–7 has been passed down rather than received by divine revelation as in Gal
