gospel, while not equivalent to the inherited tradition in either 1 Corinthians 15 or Galatians 1–2, is in both places congruent with that tradition.223 Other passages fit somewhere on the spectrum between 1 Corinthians 15 and Galatians 1–2. In each case, Paul understands himself as an apostle on the same level as the most eminent apostles and sees his teaching as being in basic harmony with theirs.
Paul’s Suffering and Imprisonment
Suffering and imprisonment are prominent themes in Paul’s description of his ministry, and these themes are featured as well in the Epistle to the Laodiceans, 3 Corinthians, Colossians, and Ephesians. Among the significant passages on this topic in the undisputed letters are Gal 6:17; 1 Cor 4:8–13; Phil 1:7, 12–26, 29–30; 2:16–18; 3:8–11; 2 Cor 1:5–11; 4:7–12; 6:3–10; Phlm 1, 9–10, 13, 23. Paul’s theological appraisal of his suffering and imprisonment as well as his purposes for discussing his hardships will be investigated in this section. It will be argued that Paul understands his suffering as a central aspect of his ministry and as an extension of his theology regarding union with Christ.224
Paul shares an enigmatic statement about bearing the marks of Jesus (τὰ στίγματα τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) at the end of his letter to the Galatians (Gal 6:17). The preceding context suggests that Paul is referring to the suffering he has endured because of his association with a crucified Savior (Gal 6:12).225 Any suffering Paul has endured is consistent with Paul’s message of Christ crucified and an outworking of being crucified with Christ (Gal 2:20). Paul may have specific injuries in mind, because he mentions that the marks of Christ are on his body.226 Paul employs this reminder of his afflictions for several possible reasons as part of a warning to those who oppose him. First, as a closing remark, this recollection of Paul’s arduous, suffering-laden ministry for the Galatians serves to strengthen the force of Paul’s argument in the letter.227 The sincerity of Paul’s devotion to Christ is enhanced by reference to his suffering. Second, Paul’s intimate bond with Christ suggests that causing trouble to Paul entails causing trouble to Christ.228 Third, Paul’s brand-marks also function to identify that he belongs to Jesus.229 So it is possible that the verse serves as a further reminder that Paul answers to God alone and will not succumb to pressure applied by opponents (see the connection between Paul’s identity as Christ’s servant [δοῦλος] and his resistance to pleasing people in Gal 1:10).
Paul highlights the mistreatments and hardships endured as an apostle in 1 Cor 4:8–13. He does so by placing the position of an apostle in ironic contrast to the supposedly superior status of his readers (4:8). When using the plural ἀποστόλους in 4:9, Paul likely has in mind at least Apollos (mentioned in 4:6), along with other authentic servants of the gospel.230 These apostles are characterized by the lowly estate they accept for the sake of Christ (4:10). Verse 9 presents the intriguing image of the apostles being displayed (ἀποδείκνυμι) as last in a line of captives who are condemned to death and exposed as a spectacle (θέατρον) to the surrounding world.231 The reference to a sentence of death need not foresee Paul’s eventual martyrdom for the faith but instead metaphorically places his lot in life alongside other undesirables who are en route to death in the public arena.232 In verse 12, Paul graphically describes his condition with the terms περικαθάρμα and περίψημα. The words in this context carry a derogatory connotation, highlighting the dismissive appraisal the world has of apostles like Paul. The idea communicated in this passage is that Paul’s ministry brings little acclaim but rather opposition, trials, and derision. Paul accepts these features as part of his calling as an apostle.
In Paul’s letter to the Philippians, the theme of suffering is traced under the larger topic of participation in the gospel (Phil 1:5, 27; 2:22; 4:3). Paul opens his discussion of suffering by affirming the believers for their willingness to support him in his hardship (1:7).233 Paul is explicit in this case that his suffering consists of imprisonment (1:7; also 1:13, 14, 17). The Philippians have thrown their lot with Paul in his imprisonment and the ministry resulting from it. According to Paul, when the Philippians share in Paul’s suffering in this way, they also share in spiritual benefits.234 They are συγκοινωνοί with Paul in God’s grace. This perspective conforms to Paul’s theology of being united with Christ in his suffering and glory (Phil 3:10–11).
In Phil 1:12–26 Paul refers only generally to his circumstances (τὰ κατ’ ἐμέ, 1:12), omitting any mention of the physical challenges related to his hardship.235 His chief interest in the passage is in the positive spiritual effects of his imprisonment in the lives of others. He speaks of the progress of the gospel (1:12) arising from an increased awareness that Paul’s profession of Christ is the reason for his incarceration and from a renewed boldness among other preachers of the gospel because of his imprisonment (1:13–14). Opportunities for an expanded ministry influence are never far removed from Paul’s thoughts (note especially the language of “open doors” in 1 Cor 16:9; 2 Cor 2:12). The advance of the gospel, consistent with the letter’s emphasis on participating in the gospel, takes precedence over Paul’s personal comfort (1:17–18).
Paul views prayer from fellow believers as an indispensable resource through the power of God’s Spirit (1:19). The prayers are mentioned in connection with Paul’s deliverance (σωτηρία). The link to Paul’s release in 1:24–26 may imply that Paul’s physical deliverance is intended in 1:19, but Paul’s fixation on his eschatological hope in 1:21–23 suggests the possibility of a reference to eternal salvation in 1:19 as well.236 An option that incorporates both meanings is deliverance as Paul’s vindication before those who denigrated Paul’s apostleship.237 Verse 20 is congenial to this position, since the language of not being put to shame envisions public vindication, and Paul himself includes both release from prison and eternal salvation as opportunities for vindication in the verse.238 That Paul is torn between the possibilities of life and death is apparent from his rumination over his possible outcomes in 1:20–24. Suffering reminds him of both his glorious destiny and his commitment to his flock, and these two values lead him in different directions.239 In the end, he suspects that God holds a more immediate purpose for Paul’s life in the lives of his readers (1:25–26). He is willing to set aside “gain” (1:21) and the “better” (1:23) of being with Christ in deference to the “more necessary” (1:24) task of “fruitful labor” (1:22). In conclusion, Paul adopts a positive attitude towards his suffering and imprisonment. He recognizes the spiritual benefit for others resulting from his ordeal and takes comfort knowing that he will share in the glory of the Christ whom he represents.
Brief mention should be made of a term (ἀγών) Paul uses in connection to suffering (πάσχω) in Phil 1:29–30. The Philippians are encouraged to prepare themselves to suffer and join in Paul’s struggle for the gospel.240 The past ἀγών that Paul recalls is likely the same one mentioned in 1 Thess 2:2, where Paul also employs ἀγών to depict his struggle to advance the gospel in the midst of conflict throughout Macedonia.241 In both cases, Paul uses the imagery of a contest to depict his commitment to the gospel in spite of heated opposition.
Later in Philippians, Paul again accents the centrality of suffering in his ministry, along with his determination to suffer for the sake of those to whom he ministers (Phil 2:16–18). In verse 16, Paul envisions the day in which he will give an account of his ministry to God (2:16). If the Philippians exhibit spiritual maturity, then Paul’s labors (κοπιάω), including his suffering, will not have been in vain (εἰς κενόν).242 Paul’s suffering, expressed in the sacrificial language of a libation (σπένδω) is best interpreted as figurative language that alludes to death.243 The prospect of suffering even death as an offering, in support of the Philippians’ own sacrificial service arising from their faith, would bring Paul great joy.244 In these three verses, Paul exhibits the value he places on a fruitful ministry among the Philippians, showing that he is willing to labor and even die in order to help the Philippians persevere in their faith.
Philippians 3:8–11 occurs as part of an autobiographical account of Paul’s transformation and calling. Paul specifies his goal of
