with, or you’re not able to recall the pattern at this moment. For this latter case, close this book. Go do something else. Come back, and you may recognize that logo when there’s a different set of associations bouncing around in your brain.
Here’s a similar abstraction of characters from four popular cartoon or children’s TV shows.8 See how many of these you can identify in Figure 3.5.
FIGURE 3.5 An abstraction of characters from four popular cartoon or children’s TV shows. We recognize these because of the brain’s associative pattern-matching abilities. If you do not recognize one or more of these, it’s because you can’t recall seeing a similar pattern.
The real question for both of these examples: How is it that you’re able to recognize these logos and cartoon references? After all, these are nothing more than shapes and colors.
This is the brain’s associative pattern matching at work. Assuming that you’ve seen this pattern before, or something like it, you are thus able to make a match. Let’s focus on this “seen it before” aspect, as here’s where things get really interesting.
SEEING WHAT WE EXPECT TO SEE
In the vase shown in Figure 3.6, what do you see?
FIGURE 3.6 An optical illusion by artist Sandro Del-Prete.9 Based on prior experiences and current expectations, viewers see either a depiction of dolphins or two lovers.
Most adults will see two lovers. Yet, show this same image to young children, and they see the dolphins. (Go ahead, look for them!) While a fun optical illusion, this (like most optical illusions) reveals something about how we perceive things. This is a great example of how the brain matches based on prior experiences and expectations. For most adults, we’re far more likely to see lovers than we are dolphins—this concept is likely on our minds more often! Children, who aren’t accustomed to seeing two adults together in this sexual way, are more likely to see the image they are familiar with, dolphins (assuming they’ve read about or seen dolphins). In short: We see what we’ve seen before (and also what we expect to see).
There’s far more to the brain and perceptions than what we’ve covered here, but the three points we’ve called out are sufficient for our purpose, which is to understand the role the brain plays as a pattern-matching and prediction organ. Understanding this gives depth to the examples that follow in the next several chapters.
To recap: associations among concepts is thinking. The brain is a perceptual organ, looking to make associations. Let’s return then to the observable world, to look at how these perceptions are activated by stories and pictures and other things we can point to.
How We’ll Explore Everyday Associations
To the extent that we use (or intentionally choose to avoid) certain associations, we affect understanding—understanding for ourselves and for others. Accordingly, it’s critical to consider how these conceptual associations slip into nearly every part of our daily interactions. Once we become aware of how associations show up, we can become more fluent at using, challenging, and avoiding associative thinking. That’s the goal.
To kick off our investigation into associations (notice the detective concept we’re activating with that specific word choice), we’ll begin primarily with examples based in language and then turn our attention to the associations invoked by what we see. While there is no clean way to structure this exploration, we have chosen to examine how associations are activated in the following ways.
First, Chapter 4, “Everyday Associations: Metaphors, Priming, Anchoring, and Narrative,” will examine what we commonly hear, read, or say:
• Metaphors (which touches on emotionally laden phrases, decision framing, and subversive language)
• Priming and anchoring
• Narratives (briefly, with a subsection on simulation)
Then Chapter 5, “Everyday Associations: Aesthetics and Explicit Visual Metaphors,” will look at associations activated by what we see:
• Aesthetics (both visual and nonvisual)
• Explicit visual metaphors
Finally, Chapter 6, “Closing Thoughts and Cautionary Notes About Associations,” will explore first principles and other considerations that should accompany any discussion of associative thinking.
CHAPTER
4
Everyday Associations: Metaphors, Priming, Anchoring, and Narrative
C is for COOKIE.
—COOKIE MONSTER, SESAME STREET
Countless books and articles are dedicated to topics such as the power of stories, how skilled orators should choose their phrasing, or how we’re irrational creatures susceptible to cognitive biases. But most of these commentaries stop at the level of “what to do” or “what happens” with little discussion as to why. A more fundamental way to assess these things is through the lens of prior associations: To what extent do these things we most commonly hear or read (or say) activate prior associations, and in doing so, shape understanding? By applying more intention to the concepts and associations we activate, we can help shift and reduce the cost of understanding. Keep this in mind as we explore how written and oral language affects our understanding.
How Metaphors Shape Associations
I (Stephen) still recall how late-night comedian David Letterman described the Mach3 razor (back when triple blades were a new thing):
“It’s like shaving with the back of a spoon.”
Perhaps this was paid placement? Regardless, this was, for me at least, a powerfully persuasive and memorable statement. Nine simple words said more to me than a 30-second commercial or full-page ad would ever communicate. But more than the words, it was what the words evoked. I don’t know of anyone who loves to shave their face. It’s not fun. It burns. We get cuts. But running the back of a spoon across my face ... That’s ... Delightful. Smooth. Perhaps cold. Not at all unsettling. Fine razor cuts and itchy skin were the farthest things from my mind when I heard Letterman describe this razor like the back of a spoon. And now my brain had formed an emotionally charged connection: I understood the (purported) feeling of this innovative new razor by way of some other, quite pleasant association.
“Reach
